THE PATH
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[THE TRUTH OF THE WAY]
75. In the description of the way leading to the cessation of suffering
eight things are given. Though they have, of course, already been ex-
plained as to meaning in the Description of the Aggregates, still we shall
deal with them here in order to remain aware of the difference between
them when they occur in a single moment [on the occasion of the path].
76. Briefly (see Ch. XXII, §31 for details), when a meditator is pro-
gressing towards the penetration of the four truths, his eye of under-
standing with nibbana as its object eliminates the inherent tendency to
ignorance, and that is right view. It has right seeing as its characteristic.
Its function is to reveal elements. It is manifested as the abolition of the
darkness of ignorance.
77. When he possesses such view, his directing of the mind on to
nibbana, which [directing] is associated with that [right view], abolishes
wrong thinking, and that is right thinking. Its characteristic is right
directing of the mind on to [its object]. Its function is to bring about
absorption [of the path consciousness in nibbana as object]. It is mani-
fested as the abandoning of wrong thinking.
78. And when he sees and thinks thus, his abstinence from wrong speech,
which abstinence is associated with that [right view], abolishes bad ver-
bal conduct, [510] and that is called right speech. It has the characteristic
of embracing.
19
Its function is to abstain. It is manifested as the abandon-
ing of wrong speech.
79. When he abstains thus, his abstinence from killing living things,
which abstinence is associated with that [right view], cuts off wrong
action, and that is called right action. It has the characteristic of originat-
ing.
20
Its function is to abstain. It is manifested as the abandoning of
wrong action.
80. When his right speech and right action are purified, his abstinence
from wrong livelihood, which abstinence is associated with that [right
view], cuts off scheming, etc., and that is called right livelihood. It has
the characteristic of cleansing.
21
Its function is to bring about the occur-
rence of a proper livelihood. It is manifested as the abandoning of wrong
livelihood.
81. When he is established on that plane of virtue called right speech,
right action, and right livelihood, his energy, which is in conformity and
associated with that [right view], cuts off idleness, and that is called
right effort. It has the characteristic of exerting. Its function is the non-
arousing of unprofitable things, and so on. It is manifested as the aban-
doning of wrong effort.
82. When he exerts himself thus, the non-forgetfulness in his mind,
which is associated with that [right view], shakes off wrong mindfulness,
and that is called right mindfulness. It has the characteristic of establish-
ing.
22
Its function is not to forget. It is manifested as the abandoning of
wrong mindfulness.
83. When his mind is thus guarded by supreme mindfulness, the unifi-
cation of mind, which is associated with that [right view], abolishes
wrong concentration, and that is called right concentration. It has the
characteristic of non-distraction. Its function is to concentrate. It is mani-
fested as the abandoning of wrong concentration.
This is the method in the description of the way leading to the
cessation of suffering.
This is how the exposition should be understood here as to defining
birth and so on.
[GENERAL]
84. 9. As to knowledge's function (see §14): the exposition should be
understood according to knowledge of the truths. For knowledge of the
truths is twofold, namely, knowledge as idea and knowledge as penetra-
tion (cf. S.v,431f.; also Ch. XXII, §92ff.). Herein, knowledge as idea is
mundane and occurs through hearsay, etc., about cessation and the path.
Knowledge consisting in penetration, which is supramundane, penetrates
the four truths as its function by making cessation its object, according
as it is said, 'Bhikkhus, he who sees suffering sees also the origin of suf-
fering, sees also the cessation of suffering, sees also the way leading to
the cessation of suffering' (S.v,437), and it should be repeated thus of all
[four truths]. But its function will be made clear in the purification by
knowledge and vision (Ch. XXII, §92f.). [511]
85. When this knowledge is mundane, then, occurring as the overcom-
ing of obsessions, the knowledge of suffering therein forestalls the [false]
view of individuality; the knowledge of origin forestalls the annihilation
view; the knowledge of cessation forestalls the eternity view; the knowl-
edge of the path forestalls the moral-inefficacy-of-action view. Or alter-
natively, the knowledge of suffering forestalls wrong theories of fruit, in
other words, [seeing] lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self in the aggre-
gates, which are devoid of lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self; and
knowledge of origin forestalls wrong theories of cause that occur as
finding a reason where there is none, such as The world occurs owing to
an Overlord, a Basic Principle, Time, Nature (Individual Essence)', etc.;
23
the knowledge of cessation forestalls such wrong theories of cessation as
taking final release to be in the immaterial world, in a World Apex
(Shrine), etc.; and the path knowledge forestalls wrong theories of means
that occur by taking to be the way of purification what is not the way of
purification and consists in devotion to indulgence in the pleasures of
sense desire and in self-mortification. Hence this is said:
As long as a man is vague about the world,
About its origin, about its ceasing,
About the means that lead to its cessation,
So long he cannot recognize the truths.
This is how the exposition should be understood here as to knowl-
edge's function.
86. 10. As to division of content: all states excepting craving and states
free from cankers are included in the truth of suffering. The thirty-six
modes of behaviour of craving24
are included in the truth of origin. The
truth of cessation is unmixed. As regards the truth of the path: the
heading of right view includes the fourth road to power consisting in
inquiry, the understanding faculty, the understanding power, and the
investigation-of-states enlightenment factor. The term right thinking in-
cludes the three kinds of applied thought beginning with that of renun-
ciation (D.iii,215). The term right speech includes the four kinds of good
verbal conduct (A.ii,131). The term right action includes the three kinds
of good bodily conduct (cf. M.i,287). The heading right livelihood in-
cludes fewness of wishes and contentment. Or all these [three] constitute
the virtue loved by noble ones, and the virtue loved by noble ones has to
be embraced by the hand of faith; consequently the faith faculty, the
faith power, and the road to power consisting in zeal are included be-
cause of the presence of these [three]. The term right effort includes
fourfold right endeavour, the energy faculty, energy power, and energy
enlightenment factor. The term right mindfulness includes the fourfold
foundation of mindfulness, the mindfulness faculty, the mindfulness
power, and the mindfulness enlightenment factor. The term right con-
centration includes the three kinds of concentration beginning with that
accompanied by applied and sustained thought (D.iii,219), conscious-
ness concentration, the concentration faculty, [512] the concentration
power, and the enlightenment factors of happiness, tranquillity, concen-
tration, and equanimity. This is how the exposition should be understood
as to division of content.
87. 11. As to simile: The truth of suffering should be regarded as a
burden, the truth of origin as the taking up of the burden, the truth of
cessation as the putting down of the burden, the truth of the path as the
means to putting down the burden (see S.iii,26). The truth of suffering is
like a disease, the truth of origin is like the cause of the disease, the truth
of cessation is like the cure of the disease, and the truth of the path is
like the medicine. Or the truth of suffering is like a famine, the truth of
origin is like a drought, the truth of cessation is like plenty, and the truth
of the path is like timely rain.
Furthermore, these truths can be understood in this way by applying
these similes: enmity, the cause of the enmity, the removal of the en-
mity, and the means to remove the enmity; a poison tree, the tree's root,
the cutting of the root, and the means to cut the root; fear, the cause of
fear, freedom from fear, and the means to attain it; the hither shore, the
great flood, the further shore, and the effort to reach it.
This is how the exposition should be understood as to simile.
88. 12. As to tetrad: (a) there is suffering that is not noble truth, (b)
there is noble truth that is not suffering, (c) there is what is both suffer-
ing and noble truth, and (d) there is what is neither suffering nor noble
truth. So also with origin and the rest.
89. Herein, (a) though states associated with the path and the fruits of
asceticism are suffering since they are suffering due to formations (see
§35) because of the words 'What is impermanent is painful' (S.ii,53;
iii,22), still they are not the noble truth [of suffering], (b) Cessation is a
noble truth but it is not suffering, (c) The other two noble truths can be
suffering because they are impermanent, but they are not so in the real
sense of that for the full-understanding of which (see §28) the life of
purity is lived under the Blessed One. The five aggregates [as objects] of
clinging, except craving, are in all aspects both suffering and noble truth.
[513] (d) The states associated with the pith and the fruits of asceticism
are neither suffering in the real sense of that for the full-understanding of
which the life of purity is lived under the Blessed One, nor are they
noble truth. Origin, etc., should also be construed in the corresponding
way. This is how the exposition should be understood here as to tetrad.
90. 13. As to void, singlefold, and so on: firstly, as to void: in the
ultimate sense all the truths should be understood as void because of the
absence of (i) any experiencer, (ii) any doer, (iii) anyone who is extin-
guished, and (iv) any goer. Hence this is said:
'For there is suffering, but none who suffers;
Doing exists although there is no doer;
Extinction is but no extinguished person;
Although there is a path, there is no goer'.
Or alternatively:
'So void of lastingness, and beauty, pleasure, self,
Is the first pair, and void of self the deathless state,
And void of lastingness, of pleasure and of self
Is the path too; for such is voidness in these four'.
91. Or three are void of cessation, and cessation is void of the other
three. Or the cause is void of the result, because of the absence of
suffering in the origin, and of cessation in the path; the cause is not
gravid with its fruit like the Primordial Essence of those who assert the
existence of Primordial Essence. And the result is void of the cause
owing to the absence of inherence of the origin in suffering and of the
path in cessation; the fruit of a cause does not have its cause inherent in
it, like the two atoms, etc., of those who assert inherence. Hence this is
said:
'Here three are of cessation void;
Cessation void, too, of these three;
The cause of its effect is void,
Void also of its cause the effect must be'.
This in the first place is how the exposition should be understood as
to void.
25
[514]
92. 14. As to singlefold and so on: and here all suffering is of one
kind as the state of occurrence. It is of two kinds as mentality-material-
ity. It is of three kinds as divided into rebirth-process becoming in the
sense sphere, fine-material sphere, and immaterial sphere. It is of four
kinds classed according to the four nutriments. It is of five kinds classed
according to the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging.
93. Also origin is of one kind as making occur. It is of two kinds as
associated and not associated with [false] view. It is of three kinds as
craving for sense desires, craving for becoming, and craving for non-
becoming. It is of four kinds as abandonable by the four paths. It is of
five kinds classed as delight in materiality, and so on. It is of six kinds
classed as the six groups of craving.
94. Also cessation is of one kind being the unformed element. But
indirectly it is of two kinds as 'with result of past clinging left' and as
'without result of past clinging left';
26
and of three kinds as the stilling of
the three kinds of becoming; and of four kinds as approachable by the
four paths; and of five kinds as the subsiding of the five kinds of delight;
and of six kinds classed according to the destruction of the six groups of
craving.
95. Also the path is of one kind as what should be developed. It is of
two kinds classed according to serenity and insight, or classed according
to seeing and developing. It is of three kinds classed according to the
three aggregates; for the [path], being selective, is included by the three
aggregates, which are comprehensive, as a city is by a kingdom, accord-
ing as it is said: 'The three aggregates are not included in the Noble
Eightfold Path, friend Visakha, but the Noble Eightfold Path is included
by the three aggregates. Any right speech, any right action, any right
livelihood: these are included in the virtue aggregate. Any right effort,
any right mindfulness, any right concentration: these are included in the
concentration aggregate. Any right view, any right thinking: these are
included in the understanding aggregate' (M.i,301).
96. For here the three beginning with right speech are virtue and so
they are included in the virtue aggregate, being of the same kind. For
although in the text the description is given in the locative case as 'in the
virtue aggregate', still the meaning should be understood according to
the instrumental case [that is, 'by the virtue aggregate'.]
As to the three beginning with right effort, concentration cannot of
its own nature cause absorption through unification on the object; but
with energy accomplishing its function of exerting and mindfulness ac-
complishing its function of preventing wobbling, it can do so.
97. Here is a simile: three friends, [thinking,] 'We will celebrate the
festival', entered a park. Then one saw a champak tree in full blossom,
but he could not reach the flowers by raising his hand. The second bent
down for the first to climb on his back. But although standing on the
other's back, he still could not pick them because of his unsteadiness.
[515] Then the third offered his shoulder [as support]. So standing on the
back of the one and supporting himself on the other's shoulder, he picked
as many flowers as he wanted and after adorning himself, he went and
enjoyed the festival. And so it is with this.
98. For the three states beginning with right effort, which are born to-
gether, are like the three friends who enter the park together. The object
is like the champak tree in full blossom. Concentration, which cannot of
its own nature bring about absorption by unification on the object, is like
the man who could not pick the flower by raising his arm. Effort is like
the companion who bent down, giving his back to mount upon. Mindful-
ness is like the friend who stood by, giving his shoulder for support. Just
as standing on the back of the one and supporting himself on the other's
shoulder he could pick as many flowers as he wanted, so too, when
energy accomplishes its function of exerting and when mindfulness
accomplishes its function of preventing wobbling, with the help so
obtained concentration can bring about absorption by unification on the
object. So here in the concentration aggregate it is only concentration
that is included as of the same kind. But effort and mindfulness are
included because of their action [in assisting].
99. Also as regards right view and right thinking, understanding cannot
of its own nature define an object as impermanent, painful, not-self. But
with applied thought giving [assistance] by repeatedly hitting [the ob-
ject] it can.
100. How? Just as a money changer, having a coin placed in his hand
and being desirous of looking at it on all sides equally, cannot turn it
over with the power of his eye only, but by turning it over with his
fingers he is able to look at it on all sides, similarly understanding cannot
of its own nature define an object as impermanent and so on. But [as-
sisted] by applied thought with its characteristic of directing the mind on
to [the object] and its function of striking and threshing, as it were,
hitting and turning over, it can take anything given and define it. So here
in the understanding aggregate it is only right view that is included as
of the same kind. But right thinking is included because of its action [in
assisting].
101. So the path is included by the three aggregates. Hence it was said
that it is of three kinds classed according to the three aggregates. And it
is of four kinds as the path of stream-entry and so on.
102. In addition, all the truths are of one kind because they are not
unreal, or because they must be directly known. They are of two kinds as
(i and ii) mundane and (iii and iv) supramundane, or (i, ii, and iv)
formed and (iii) unformed. They are of three kind as (ii) to be abandoned
by seeing and development, (iii and iv) not to be abandoned, and (i)
neither to be abandoned nor not to be abandoned. They are of four kinds
classed according to what has to be fully understood, and so on (see
§28).
This is how the exposition should be understood as to singlefold and
so on. [516]
103. 15. As to similar and dissimilar: all the truths are similar to each
other because they are not unreal, are void of self, and are difficult to
penetrate, according as it is said: 'What do you think, Ananda, which is
more difficult to do, more difficult to perform, that a man should shoot
an arrow through a small keyhole from a distance time after time without
missing or that he should penetrate the tip of a hair split a hundred times
with the tip [of a similar hair]?—This is more difficult to do, venerable
sir, more difficult to perform, that a man should penetrate the tip of a
hair split a hundred times with the tip [of a similar hair].—They pene-
trate something more difficult to penetrate than that, Ananda, who pene-
trate correctly thus, "This is suffering" ... who penetrate correctly thus,
"This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering" ' (S.v,454). They
are dissimilar when defined according to their individual characteristics.
104. And the first two are similar since they are profound because hard to
grasp, since they are mundane, and since they are subject to cankers.
They are dissimilar in being divided into fruit and cause, and being
respectively to be fully understood and to be abandoned. And the last
two are similar since they are hard to grasp because profound, since they
are supramundane, and since they are free from cankers. They are dis-
similar in being divided into object and what has an object, and in being
respectively to be realized and to be developed. And the first and third
are similar since they come under the heading of result. They are dis-
similar in being formed and unformed. Also the second and fourth are
similar since they come under the heading of cause. They are dissimilar
in being respectively entirely unprofitable and entirely profitable. And
the first and fourth are similar in being formed. They are dissimilar in
being mundane and supramundane. Also the second and the third are
similar since they are the state of neither-trainer-nor-non-trainer (see
Vbh. 114). They are dissimilar in being respectively with object and
without object.
A man of vision can apply
By suchlike means his talent so
That he among the truths may know
The similar and contrary.
The sixteenth chapter called 'The Descrip-
tion of the Faculties and Truths' in the Treatise on
the Development of Understanding in the Path of
Purification composed for the purpose of glad-
dening good people.
Showing posts with label Cattari Ariya Saccani. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Cattari Ariya Saccani. Show all posts
Monday, July 11, 2011
Visuddhimagga - THE FACULTIES AND TRUTHS - The truth of the origin & cessation of suffering
THE PATH
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[THE TRUTH OF THE ORIGIN OF SUFFERING]
61. But in the description of the origin, the expression ydyarh tanhd
(that craving which) = ya ayam tanha. [As regards the expression] pro-
duces further becoming: it is a making become again, thus it is 'becom-
ing again' (punabbhava); becoming again is its habit, thus it 'produces
further becoming' (ponobbhavika). The expression nandiragasahagata
(accompanied by concern and greed) = nandiragena sahagata; what is
meant is that it is identical in meaning with delight and greed. Con-
cerned with this and that: wherever personality is generated there is
concern with that. The expression that is to say (seyyathidam) is a par-
ticle; its meaning is 'which is that'. Craving for sense desires, craving
for becoming, craving for non-becoming will be explained in the De-
scription of Dependent Origination (Ch. XVII, §§233ff.). Although this
is threefold, it should nevertheless be understood as 'the noble truth of
the origin of suffering', taking it as one in the sense of its generating the
truth of suffering.
[THE TRUTH OF THE CESSATION OF SUFFERING]
62. In the description of the cessation of suffering it is the cessation of
the origin that is stated by the words that which is ... of that same
craving, and so on. Why is that? Because the cessation of suffering
comes about with the cessation of its origin. For it is with the cessation
of its origin that suffering ceases, not otherwise. Hence it is said: [507]
'Just as a tree cut down grows up again
While yet its root remains unharmed and sound,
So with the tendency to crave intact
This suffering is ever reproduced' (Dh. 338).
63. So it is because suffering ceases only through the cessation of its
origin that, when teaching the cessation of suffering, the Blessed One
therefore taught the cessation of the origin. For the Perfect Ones behave
like lions.
15
When they make suffering cease and when they teach the
cessation of suffering, they deal with the cause, not the fruit. But the sec-
tarians behave like dogs. When they make suffering cease and when they
teach the cessation of suffering, by teaching devotion to self-mortifica-
tion, etc., they deal with the fruit, not the cause. This in the first place is
how the motive for teaching the cessation of suffering by means of the
cessation of its origin should be understood.
64. This is the meaning. Of that same craving: of that craving which, it
was said, 'produces further becoming', and which was classed as 'crav-
ing for sense desires' and so on. It is the path that is called fading away;
for 'With the fading away [of greed] he is liberated' (M.i,139) is said.
Fading away and cessation is cessation through fading away. Remain-
derless fading away and cessation is cessation through fading away that
is remainderless because of eradication of inherent tendencies. Or alter-
natively, it is abandoning that is celled fading away; and so the construc-
tion here can be regarded as 'remainderless fading away, remainderless
cessation.'
65. But as to meaning, all of them are synonyms for nibbana. For in the
ultimate sense it is nibbana that is called 'the noble truth of the cessation
of suffering'. But because craving fades away and ceases on coming to
that,
16
it is therefore called 'fading away' and 'cessation'. And because
there comes to be the giving up, etc., of that [craving] on coming to that
[nibbana], and since there is not even one kind of reliance here [to be
depended upon] from among the reliances consisting in the cords of
sense desires, etc., it is therefore called giving it up, relinquishing it,
letting it go, not relying on it.
66. It has peace as its characteristic. Its function is not to die; or its
function is to comfort. It is manifested as the signless; or it is manifested
as non-diversification.
17
[DISCUSSION ON NIBBANA]
67. [Question 1.] Is nibbana non-existent because it is unapprehend-
able, like the hare's horn?
[Answer.] That is not so, because it is apprehendable by the [right]
means. For it is apprehendable [by some, namely, the nobles ones] by
the [right] means, in other words, by the way that is appropriate to it,
[the way of virtue, concentration, and understanding]; it is like the supra-
mundane consciousness of others, [which is apprehendable only by cer-
tain of the noble ones] by means of knowledge of penetration of others'
minds. Therefore it should not be said that it is non-existent because un-
apprehendable; for it should not be said that what the foolish ordinary
man does not apprehend is unapprehendable.
68. Again, it should not be said that nibbana does not exist. Why not?
Because it then follows that the way would be futile. [508] For if nib-
bana were non-existent, then it would follow that the right way, which
includes the three aggregates beginning with virtue and is headed by
right understanding, would be futile. And it is not futile because it does
reach nibbana.
[Q.2.] But futility of the way does not follow because what is reached
is absence, [that is, absence of the five aggregates consequent upon the
cutting off of the defilements].
[A.] That is not so. Because, though there is absence of past and
future [aggregates], there is nevertheless no reaching of nibbana [simply
because of that].
[Q.3.] Then is the absence of present [aggregates] as well nibbana?
[A.] That is not so. Because their absence is an impossibility, since
if they are absent their non-presence follows. [Besides, if nibbana were
absence of present aggregates too,] that would entail the fault of exclud-
ing the arising of the nibbana element with result of past clinging left, at
the path moment, which has present aggregates as its support.
[Q.4.] Then will there be no fault if it is non-presence of defilements
[that is nibbana]?
[A.] That is not so. Because it would then follow that the noble path
was meaningless. For if it were so, then, since defilements [can be] non-
existent also before the moment of the noble path, it follows that the
noble path would be meaningless. Consequently that is no reason; [it is
unreasonable to say that nibbana is unapprehendable, that it is non-
existence, and so on].
69. [Q.5.] But is not nibbana destruction, because of the passage begin-
ning 'That, friend, which is the destruction of greed ... [of hate ... of
delusion ... is nibbana]' (S.iv,251)?
[A.] That is not so, because it would follow that Arahantship also
was mere destruction. For that too is described in the [same] way begin-
ning 4
That, friend, which is the destruction of greed ... of hate ... of de-
lusion ... is Arahantship]' (S.iv,252).
And what is more, the fallacy then follows that nibbana would be
temporary, etc.; for if it were so, it would follow that nibbana would be
temporary, have the characteristic of being formed, and be obtainable re-
gardless of right effort; and precisely because of its having formed char-
acteristics it would be included in the formed, and it would be burning
with the fires of greed, etc., and because of its burning it would follow
that it was suffering.
[Q.6.] Is there no fallacy if nibbana is that kind of destruction subse-
quent to which there is no more occurrence?
[A.] That is not so. Because there is no such kind of destruction.
And even if there were, the aforesaid fallacies would not be avoided.
Also because it would follow that the noble path was nibbana. For the
noble path causes the destruction of defects, and that is why it is called
'destruction'; and subsequent to that there is no more occurrence of the
defects.
70. But it is because the kind of destruction called Cessation consisting
in non-arising', [that is, nibbana,] serves figuratively speaking as deci-
sive-support [for the path] that [nibbana] is called 'destruction' as a
metaphor for it.
[Q.7.] Why is it not stated in its own form?
[A.] Because of its extreme subtlety. And its extreme subtlety is es-
tablished because it inclined the Blessed One to inaction, [that is, to not
teaching the Dhamma (see M.i,186)] and because a noble one's eye is
needed to see it (see (M.i,510).
71. It is not shared by all because it can only be reached by one who is
possessed of the path. And it is uncreated because it has no first begin-
ning.
[Q.8.] Since it is, when the path is, then it is not uncreated.
[A.] That is not so, because it is not arousable by the path; it is only
reachable, not arousable, by the path; that is why it is uncreated. It is
because it is uncreated that it is free from ageing and death. It is because
of the absence of its creation and of its ageing and death that it is
permanent. [509]
72. [Q.9.] Then it follows that nibbana, too, has the kind of permanence
[claimed] of the atom and so on.
[A.] That is not so. Because of the absence of any cause [that brings
about its arising].
[Q.10.] Because nibbana has permanence, then, these [that is, the
atom, etc.] are permanent as well.
[A.] That is not so. Because [in that proposition] the characteristic
of [logical] cause does not arise. [In other words, to say that nibbana is
permanent is not to assert a reason why the atom, etc., should be perma-
nent.]
[Q.11.] Then they are permanent because of the absence of their
arising, as nibbana is.
[A.] That is not so. Because the atom and so on have not been estab-
lished as facts.
73. The aforesaid logical reasoning proves that only this [that is, nib-
bana] is permanent [precisely because it is uncreated]; and it is immate-
rial because it transcends the individual essence of matter.
The Buddhas' goal is one and has no plurality. But this [single goal,
nibbana,] is firstly called with result of past clinging left since it is made
known together with the [aggregates resulting from past] clinging still
remaining [during the Arahant's life], being thus made known in terms
of the stilling of defilement and the remaining [result of past] clinging
that are present in one who has reached it by means of development. But
[secondly, it is called without result of past clinging left] since after the
last consciousness of the Arahant, who has abandoned arousing [future
aggregates] and so prevented kamma from giving result in a future [exis-
tence], there is no further arising of aggregates of existence, and those
already arisen have disappeared. So the [result of past] clinging that
remained is non-existent; and it is in terms of this non-existence, in the
sense that 'there is no [result of past] clinging here' that that [same goal
is called] without result of past clinging left (see Iti. 38).
74. Because it can be arrived at by distinction of knowledge that suc-
ceeds through untiring perseverance, and because it is the word of the
Omniscient One, nibbana is not non-existent as regards individual
essence in the ultimate sense; for this is said: *Bhikkhus, there is an
unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an unformed' (Iti. 37; Ud. 8O).
18
This is the section of the definition dealing with the description of
the cessation of suffering.
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[THE TRUTH OF THE ORIGIN OF SUFFERING]
61. But in the description of the origin, the expression ydyarh tanhd
(that craving which) = ya ayam tanha. [As regards the expression] pro-
duces further becoming: it is a making become again, thus it is 'becom-
ing again' (punabbhava); becoming again is its habit, thus it 'produces
further becoming' (ponobbhavika). The expression nandiragasahagata
(accompanied by concern and greed) = nandiragena sahagata; what is
meant is that it is identical in meaning with delight and greed. Con-
cerned with this and that: wherever personality is generated there is
concern with that. The expression that is to say (seyyathidam) is a par-
ticle; its meaning is 'which is that'. Craving for sense desires, craving
for becoming, craving for non-becoming will be explained in the De-
scription of Dependent Origination (Ch. XVII, §§233ff.). Although this
is threefold, it should nevertheless be understood as 'the noble truth of
the origin of suffering', taking it as one in the sense of its generating the
truth of suffering.
[THE TRUTH OF THE CESSATION OF SUFFERING]
62. In the description of the cessation of suffering it is the cessation of
the origin that is stated by the words that which is ... of that same
craving, and so on. Why is that? Because the cessation of suffering
comes about with the cessation of its origin. For it is with the cessation
of its origin that suffering ceases, not otherwise. Hence it is said: [507]
'Just as a tree cut down grows up again
While yet its root remains unharmed and sound,
So with the tendency to crave intact
This suffering is ever reproduced' (Dh. 338).
63. So it is because suffering ceases only through the cessation of its
origin that, when teaching the cessation of suffering, the Blessed One
therefore taught the cessation of the origin. For the Perfect Ones behave
like lions.
15
When they make suffering cease and when they teach the
cessation of suffering, they deal with the cause, not the fruit. But the sec-
tarians behave like dogs. When they make suffering cease and when they
teach the cessation of suffering, by teaching devotion to self-mortifica-
tion, etc., they deal with the fruit, not the cause. This in the first place is
how the motive for teaching the cessation of suffering by means of the
cessation of its origin should be understood.
64. This is the meaning. Of that same craving: of that craving which, it
was said, 'produces further becoming', and which was classed as 'crav-
ing for sense desires' and so on. It is the path that is called fading away;
for 'With the fading away [of greed] he is liberated' (M.i,139) is said.
Fading away and cessation is cessation through fading away. Remain-
derless fading away and cessation is cessation through fading away that
is remainderless because of eradication of inherent tendencies. Or alter-
natively, it is abandoning that is celled fading away; and so the construc-
tion here can be regarded as 'remainderless fading away, remainderless
cessation.'
65. But as to meaning, all of them are synonyms for nibbana. For in the
ultimate sense it is nibbana that is called 'the noble truth of the cessation
of suffering'. But because craving fades away and ceases on coming to
that,
16
it is therefore called 'fading away' and 'cessation'. And because
there comes to be the giving up, etc., of that [craving] on coming to that
[nibbana], and since there is not even one kind of reliance here [to be
depended upon] from among the reliances consisting in the cords of
sense desires, etc., it is therefore called giving it up, relinquishing it,
letting it go, not relying on it.
66. It has peace as its characteristic. Its function is not to die; or its
function is to comfort. It is manifested as the signless; or it is manifested
as non-diversification.
17
[DISCUSSION ON NIBBANA]
67. [Question 1.] Is nibbana non-existent because it is unapprehend-
able, like the hare's horn?
[Answer.] That is not so, because it is apprehendable by the [right]
means. For it is apprehendable [by some, namely, the nobles ones] by
the [right] means, in other words, by the way that is appropriate to it,
[the way of virtue, concentration, and understanding]; it is like the supra-
mundane consciousness of others, [which is apprehendable only by cer-
tain of the noble ones] by means of knowledge of penetration of others'
minds. Therefore it should not be said that it is non-existent because un-
apprehendable; for it should not be said that what the foolish ordinary
man does not apprehend is unapprehendable.
68. Again, it should not be said that nibbana does not exist. Why not?
Because it then follows that the way would be futile. [508] For if nib-
bana were non-existent, then it would follow that the right way, which
includes the three aggregates beginning with virtue and is headed by
right understanding, would be futile. And it is not futile because it does
reach nibbana.
[Q.2.] But futility of the way does not follow because what is reached
is absence, [that is, absence of the five aggregates consequent upon the
cutting off of the defilements].
[A.] That is not so. Because, though there is absence of past and
future [aggregates], there is nevertheless no reaching of nibbana [simply
because of that].
[Q.3.] Then is the absence of present [aggregates] as well nibbana?
[A.] That is not so. Because their absence is an impossibility, since
if they are absent their non-presence follows. [Besides, if nibbana were
absence of present aggregates too,] that would entail the fault of exclud-
ing the arising of the nibbana element with result of past clinging left, at
the path moment, which has present aggregates as its support.
[Q.4.] Then will there be no fault if it is non-presence of defilements
[that is nibbana]?
[A.] That is not so. Because it would then follow that the noble path
was meaningless. For if it were so, then, since defilements [can be] non-
existent also before the moment of the noble path, it follows that the
noble path would be meaningless. Consequently that is no reason; [it is
unreasonable to say that nibbana is unapprehendable, that it is non-
existence, and so on].
69. [Q.5.] But is not nibbana destruction, because of the passage begin-
ning 'That, friend, which is the destruction of greed ... [of hate ... of
delusion ... is nibbana]' (S.iv,251)?
[A.] That is not so, because it would follow that Arahantship also
was mere destruction. For that too is described in the [same] way begin-
ning 4
That, friend, which is the destruction of greed ... of hate ... of de-
lusion ... is Arahantship]' (S.iv,252).
And what is more, the fallacy then follows that nibbana would be
temporary, etc.; for if it were so, it would follow that nibbana would be
temporary, have the characteristic of being formed, and be obtainable re-
gardless of right effort; and precisely because of its having formed char-
acteristics it would be included in the formed, and it would be burning
with the fires of greed, etc., and because of its burning it would follow
that it was suffering.
[Q.6.] Is there no fallacy if nibbana is that kind of destruction subse-
quent to which there is no more occurrence?
[A.] That is not so. Because there is no such kind of destruction.
And even if there were, the aforesaid fallacies would not be avoided.
Also because it would follow that the noble path was nibbana. For the
noble path causes the destruction of defects, and that is why it is called
'destruction'; and subsequent to that there is no more occurrence of the
defects.
70. But it is because the kind of destruction called Cessation consisting
in non-arising', [that is, nibbana,] serves figuratively speaking as deci-
sive-support [for the path] that [nibbana] is called 'destruction' as a
metaphor for it.
[Q.7.] Why is it not stated in its own form?
[A.] Because of its extreme subtlety. And its extreme subtlety is es-
tablished because it inclined the Blessed One to inaction, [that is, to not
teaching the Dhamma (see M.i,186)] and because a noble one's eye is
needed to see it (see (M.i,510).
71. It is not shared by all because it can only be reached by one who is
possessed of the path. And it is uncreated because it has no first begin-
ning.
[Q.8.] Since it is, when the path is, then it is not uncreated.
[A.] That is not so, because it is not arousable by the path; it is only
reachable, not arousable, by the path; that is why it is uncreated. It is
because it is uncreated that it is free from ageing and death. It is because
of the absence of its creation and of its ageing and death that it is
permanent. [509]
72. [Q.9.] Then it follows that nibbana, too, has the kind of permanence
[claimed] of the atom and so on.
[A.] That is not so. Because of the absence of any cause [that brings
about its arising].
[Q.10.] Because nibbana has permanence, then, these [that is, the
atom, etc.] are permanent as well.
[A.] That is not so. Because [in that proposition] the characteristic
of [logical] cause does not arise. [In other words, to say that nibbana is
permanent is not to assert a reason why the atom, etc., should be perma-
nent.]
[Q.11.] Then they are permanent because of the absence of their
arising, as nibbana is.
[A.] That is not so. Because the atom and so on have not been estab-
lished as facts.
73. The aforesaid logical reasoning proves that only this [that is, nib-
bana] is permanent [precisely because it is uncreated]; and it is immate-
rial because it transcends the individual essence of matter.
The Buddhas' goal is one and has no plurality. But this [single goal,
nibbana,] is firstly called with result of past clinging left since it is made
known together with the [aggregates resulting from past] clinging still
remaining [during the Arahant's life], being thus made known in terms
of the stilling of defilement and the remaining [result of past] clinging
that are present in one who has reached it by means of development. But
[secondly, it is called without result of past clinging left] since after the
last consciousness of the Arahant, who has abandoned arousing [future
aggregates] and so prevented kamma from giving result in a future [exis-
tence], there is no further arising of aggregates of existence, and those
already arisen have disappeared. So the [result of past] clinging that
remained is non-existent; and it is in terms of this non-existence, in the
sense that 'there is no [result of past] clinging here' that that [same goal
is called] without result of past clinging left (see Iti. 38).
74. Because it can be arrived at by distinction of knowledge that suc-
ceeds through untiring perseverance, and because it is the word of the
Omniscient One, nibbana is not non-existent as regards individual
essence in the ultimate sense; for this is said: *Bhikkhus, there is an
unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an unformed' (Iti. 37; Ud. 8O).
18
This is the section of the definition dealing with the description of
the cessation of suffering.
Visuddhimagga - THE FACULTIES AND TRUTHS - The truth of suffering
THE PATH
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[THE TRUTH OF SUFFERING]
[(i) BIRTH]
32. Now this word birth (jati) has many meanings. For in the passage
'[He recollects...] one birth (jati), two births' (D.i,81) it is becoming. In
the passage 'Visakha, there is a kind (jati) of ascetics called Niganthas
(Jains)' (A.i,206) it is a monastic order. In the passage 'Birth (jati) is
included in two aggregates' (Dhk. 15) it is the characteristic of whatever
is formed. In the passage 'His birth is due to the first consciousness
arisen, the first cognition manifested, in the mother's womb' (Vin.i,93)
it is rebirth-linking. [499] In the passage 'As soon as he was born
(sampatijata), Ananda, the Bodhisatta ...' (M.iii,123) it is parturition. In
the passage 'One who is not rejected and despised on account of birth'
(A.iii,152) it is clan. In the passage 'Sister, since I was born with the
noble birth' (M.ii,103) it is the noble one's virtue.
33. Here it should be regarded as the aggregates that occur from the
time of rebirth-linking up to the exit from the mother's womb in the case
of the womb-born, and as only the aggregates of rebirth-linking in the
case of the rest. But this is only an indirect treatment. In the direct sense,
however, it is the first manifestation of any aggregates that are mani-
fested in living beings when they are born anywhere that is called 'birth'.
34. Its characteristic is the first genesis in any [sphere of] becoming. Its
function is to consign [to a sphere of becoming]. It is manifested as an
emerging here from a past becoming; or it is manifested as the varied-
ness of suffering.
But why is it suffering? Because it is the basis for many kind of suf-
fering.
8
For there are many kinds of suffering, that is to say, intrinsic
suffering (dukkha-dukkha),
9
suffering in change (viparinama-dukkha),
and suffering due to formations (sankhara-dukkha); and then concealed
suffering, exposed suffering, indirect suffering, and direct suffering.
35. Herein, bodily and mental painful feeling are called intrinsic suffering
because of their individual essence, their name, and their painftilness.
[Bodily and mental] pleasant feeling are called suffering in change be-
cause they are a cause for the arising of pain when they change (M.i,303).
Equanimous feeling and the remaining formations of the three planes are
called suffering due to formations because they are oppressed by rise and
fall. Such bodily and mental affliction as earache, toothache, fever born
of lust, fever born of hate, etc., is called concealed suffering because it
can only be known by questioning and because the infliction is not
openly evident; it is also called 'unevident suffering'. The affliction
produced by the thirty-two tortures,
10
etc., is called exposed suffering
because it can be known without questioning and because the infliction
is openly evident; it is also called 'evident suffering'. Except intrinsic
suffering, all given in the exposition of the truth of suffering [in the
Vibhahga] (Vbh. 99) beginning with birth are also called indirect suffering
because they are the basis for one kind of suffering or another. But
intrinsic suffering is called direct suffering.
36. Herein, this birth is suffering because it is the basis for the suffering
in the states of loss as made evident by the Blessed One by means of a
simile in the Balapandita Sutta (M.iii,165f.), etc., and for the suffering
that arises in the happy destinies in the human world and is classed as
'rooted in the descent into the womb', and so on. [500]
37. Here the suffering classed as 'rooted in the descent into the womb',
and so on, is this: When this being is born in the mother's womb, he is
not born inside a blue or red or white lotus, etc., but on the contrary, like
a worm in rotting fish, rotting dough, cess-pools, etc., he is born in the
belly in a position that is below the receptacle for undigested food (stom-
ach), above the receptacle for digested food (rectum), between the belly-
lining and the backbone, which is very cramped, quite dark, pervaded by
very fetid draughts redolent of various smells of ordure, and exception-
ally loathsome.
11
And on being reborn there, for ten months he under-
goes excessive suffering, being cooked like a pudding in a bag by the
heat produced in the mother's womb, and steamed like a dumpling of
dough, with no bending, stretching, and so on. So this, firstly, is the
suffering rooted in the descent into the womb.
38. When the mother suddenly stumbles or moves or sits down or gets
up or turns round, the extreme suffering he undergoes by being dragged
back and forth and jolted up and down, like a kid fallen into the hands of
a drunkard, or like a snake's young fallen into the hands of a snake-
charmer, and also the searing pain that he undergoes, as though he had
reappeared in the cold hells, when his mother drinks cold water, and as
though deluged by a rain of embers when she swallows hot rice gruel,
rice, etc., and as though undergoing the torture of the 'lye-pickling' (see
M.i,87), when she swallows anything salty or acidic, etc.—this is the
suffering rooted in gestation.
39. When the mother has an abortion, the pain that arises in him through
the cutting and rending in the place where the pain arises that is not fit to
be seen even by friends and intimates and companions—this is the suf-
fering rooted in abortion.
40. The pain that arises in him when the mother gives birth, through his
being turned upside-down by the kamma-produced winds [forces] and
flung into that most fearful passage from the womb, like an infernal
chasm, and lugged out through the extremely narrow mouth of the womb,
like an elephant through a keyhole, like a denizen of hell being pounded
to pulp by colliding rocks—this is the suffering rooted in parturition.
41. The pain that arises in him after he is born, and his body, which is as
delicate as a tender wound, is taken in the hands, bathed, washed, rubbed
with cloths, etc., and which pain is like being pricked with needle points
and gashed with razor blades, etc.—this is the suffering rooted in ventur-
ing outside the mother's womb. [501]
42. The pain that arises afterwards during the course of existence in one
who punishes himself, in one who devotes himself to the practice of
mortification and austerity according to the vows of the naked ascetics,
in one who starves through anger, and in one who hangs himself—this is
the suffering rooted in self-violence.
43. And that arising in one who undergoes flogging, imprisonment, etc.,
at the hands of others is the suffering rooted in others' violence.
So this birth is the basis for all this suffering. Hence this is said:
Now were no being born in hell again
The pain unbearable of scorching fires
And all the rest would then no footing gain;
Therefore the Sage pronounced that birth is pain.
Many the sorts of pain that beasts endure
When they are flogged with whips and sticks and goads,
Since birth among mem does this pain procure,
Birth there is pain: the consequence is sure.
While ghosts know pain in great variety
Through hunger, thirst, wind, sun and what not too,
None, unless born there, knows this misery;
So birth the Sage declares this pain to be.
In the world-interspace, where demons dwell
In searing cold and inspissated gloom,
Is pain requiring birth there for its spell;
So with the birth the pain ensues as well.
The horrible torment a being feels on coming out,
When he has spent long months shut up inside the mother's
womb—
A hellish tomb of excrement—would never come about
Without rebirth: that birth is pain there is no room for doubt.
But why elaborate? At any time or anywhere
Can there exist a painful state if birth do not precede?
Indeed this Sage so great, when he expounded pain, took care
First to declare rebirth as pain, the condition needed there.
This, firstly, is the exposition of birth. [502]
[(ii) AGEING]
44. Ageing is suffering: ageing is twofold; as a characteristic of what-
ever is formed, and in the case of a continuity, as the oldness of aggre-
gates included in a single becoming, which oldness is known as broken-
ness' and so on (see M.iii,249). The latter is intended here.
But this ageing has as its characteristic the maturing (ripening) of
aggregates. Its function is to lead on to death. It is manifested as the
vanishing of youth. It is suffering because of the suffering due to forma-
tions and because it is a basis for suffering.
45. Ageing is the basis for the bodily and mental suffering that arises
owing to many conditions such as leadenness in all the limbs, decline
and warping of the faculties, vanishing of youth, undermining of strength,
loss of memory and intelligence, contempt on the part of others, and so
on.
Hence this is said:
With leadenness in every limb,
With every faculty declining,
With vanishing of youthfulness*
With memory and wit grown dim,
With strength now drained by undermining,
With growing unattractiveness
To wife and family and then
With dotage coming on, what pain
Alike of body and of mind
A mortal must expect to find!
Since ageing all of this will bring,
Ageing is well named suffering.
This is the exposition of ageing.
[(iii) DEATH]
46. Death is suffering: death too is twofold, as a characteristic of the
formed, with reference to which it is said, 'Ageing and death are in-
cluded in the aggregates' (Dhk. 15), and as the severing of the connexion
of the life faculty included in a single becoming, with reference to which
it is said, 'So mortals are in constant fear ... that they will die' (Sn. 576).
The latter is intended here. Death with birth as its condition, death by
violence, death by natural causes, death from exhaustion of the life span,
death from exhaustion of merit, are names for it.
47. It has the characteristic of a fall. Its function is to disjoin. It is
manifested as absence from the destiny [in which there was the rebirth].
It should be understood as suffering because it is a basis for suffering.
Hence this is said:
Without distinction as they die
Pain grips their minds impartially
When wicked men their foul deeds see
Or sign of new rebirth, may be,
Also when good men cannot bear
To part from all that they hold dear.
Then bodily pain severs sinews,
Joints and so on, and continues [503]
Torture unbearable, which racks
All those whose vitals death attacks
With grip that shall no more relax.'
Death is the basis of such pain,
And this suffices to explain
Why death the name of pain should gain.
This is the exposition of death.
[(iv) SORROW]
48. As regards sorrow, etc., sorrow is a burning in the mind in one
affected by loss of relatives, and so on. Although in meaning it is the
same as grief, nevertheless it has inner consuming as its characteristic,
its function is completely to consume the mind. It is manifested as con-
tinual sorrowing. It is suffering because it is intrinsic suffering and be-
cause it is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
Sorrow is a poisoned dart
That penetrates a being's heart;
Setting up a burning there
Like burning with a red-hot spear.
This state of mind brings future pain (see Ch. XVII, §273f.)
Such as disease, and then again
Ageing and death, so one may tell
Wherefor it is called pain as well.
This is the exposition of sorrow.
[(v) LAMENTATION]
49. Lamentation is verbal clamour on the part of one affected by loss of
relatives and so on. It has crying out as its characteristic. Its function is
proclaiming virtues and vices. It is manifested as tumult. It is suffering
because it is a state of suffering due to formations and because it is a
basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
Now when a man is struck by sorrow's dart and he laments
The pain he is already undergoing he augments
With pain born of dry throat and lips and palate, hard to bear.
And so lamenting too is pain, the Buddha did declare.
This is the exposition of lamentation.
[(vi) PAIN]
50. Pain is bodily pain. Its characteristic is the oppression of the body.
Its function is to cause grief in the foolish. It is manifested as bodily af-
fliction. It is suffering because it is intrinsic suffering, and because it
brings mental suffering. Hence this is said:
Pain distresses bodily,
Thereby distressing mentally again;
So acting fundamentally,
It therefore is especially called pain.
This is the exposition of pain. [504]
[(vii) GRIEF]
51. Grief is mental pain. Its characteristic is mental oppression. Its func-
tion is to distress the mind. It is manifested as mental affliction. It is
suffering because it is intrinsic suffering, and because it brings bodily
suffering. For those who are gripped by mental pain tear their hair, weep,
thump their breasts, and twist and writhe; they throw themselves upside-
down,
12
use the knife, swallow poison, hang themselves with ropes, walk
into fires, and undergo many kinds of suffering. Hence this is said:
Though grief itself distresses mind,
It makes distress of bodily kind occur,
And that is why this mental grief
Is pain, as those that have no grief aver.
This is the exposition of grief.
[(viii) DESPAIR]
52. Despair is the same as the humour produced by excessive mental
suffering in one affected by loss of relatives, and so on. Some say that it
is one of the states included in the formations aggregate. Its characteris-
tic is burning of the mind. Its function is to bemoan. It is manifested as
dejection. It is suffering because it is suffering due to formations, be-
cause of the burning of the mind, and because of bodily dejection. Hence
this is said:
So great the pain despair imparts
It burns the heart as with fever's flame;
The body's function it impairs
And so despair borrows from pain its name.
This is the exposition of despair.
53. Sorrow is like the cooking [of oil, etc.]
13
in a pot over a slow fire.
Lamentation is like its boiling over from the pot when cooking over a
quick fire. Despair is like what remains in the pot after it has boiled over
and is unable to do so any more, going on cooking in the pot till it dries
up.
[(ix) ASSOCIATION WITH THE UNLOVED]
54. Association with the unloved is meeting with disagreeable beings
and formations (inanimate things). Its characteristic is association with
the undesirable. Its function is to distress the mind. It is manifested as a
harmful state. It is suffering because it is a basis for suffering. Hence this
is said:
The mere sight of an unloved thing
Brings firstly mental suffering,
And suffering of body too
Through touching it can then ensue.
And we therefore may recognize,
Since meeting the unloved gives rise
To either kind of pain, that He
Decided pain its name should be.
This is the exposition of association with the unloved. [505]
[(x) SEPARATION FROM THE LOVED]
55. Separation from the loved is to be parted from agreeable beings and
formations (inanimate things). Its characteristic is dissociation from de-
sirable objects. Its function is to arouse sorrow. It is manifested as loss.
It is suffering because it is a basis for the suffering of sorrow. Hence this
is said:
The dart of sorrow wounds the heart
Of fools who from their wealth must part or kin,
Which roughly should be grounds enough
For counting the loved lost as suffering.
This is the exposition of separation from the loved.
[(xi) NOT TO GET WHAT ONE WANTS]
56. Not to get what one wants: the want itself of some unobtainable
object [expressed] in such passages as 'Oh, that we were not subject to
birth!' (Vbh. 101) is called suffering since one does not get what is
wanted. Its characteristic is the wanting of an unobtainable object. Its
function is to seek that. It is manifested as disappointment. It is suffering
because it is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
When beings here expect to gain
Something they build their hopes upon
Which fails them, they are woebegone
With disappointment's numbing pain.
Thereof the cause is hope they wed
To something they cannot obtain:
'Not to get what one wants is pain'
The Conqueror has therefore said.
This is the exposition of not to get what one wants.
[(xii) THE FIVE AGGREGATES]
57. In short the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging:
Now birth and ageing and each thing
Told in describing suffering,
And those not mentioned, could not be
Were there no aggregates for clinging.
Wherefore these aggregates for clinging
Are taken in totality
As pain by Him, the Dhamma's King,
Who taught the end of suffering.
58. For birth, etc., thus oppress the pentad of aggregates [as objects] of
clinging as fire does fuel, as shooting does a target, as gadflies, flies,
etc., do a cow's body, as reapers do a field, as village raiders do a
village; and they are generated in the aggregates as weeds, creepers, etc.,
are on the ground, as flowers, fruits and sprouts are on trees.
59. And the aggregates [as objects] of clinging have birth as their initial
suffering, ageing as their medial suffering, and death as their final suf-
fering. The suffering due to burning in one who is the victim of the pain
that threatens death is sorrow. The suffering consisting in crying out by
one who is unable to bear that is lamentation. Next, the suffering con-
sisting in affliction of the body due to the contact of undesirable tangible
data, in other words, disturbance of the elements, is pain. [506] The
suffering oppressing the mind through resistance to that in ordinary people
oppressed by it, is grief. The suffering consisting in brooding14
in those
dejected by the augmentation of sorrow, etc., is despair. The suffering
consisting in frustration of wants in those whose hopes are disappointed
is not to get what one wants. So when their various aspects are exam-
ined, the aggregates [as objects] of clinging are themselves suffering.
60. It is impossible to tell it [all] without remainder, showing each kind
of suffering, even [by going on doing so] for many aeons, so the Blessed
One said 'In short the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging are suffer-
ing* in order to show in short how all that suffering is present in any of
the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging in the same way that the taste
of the water in the whole ocean is to be found in a single drop of its
water.
This is the exposition of the aggregates [as objects] of clinging.
This, firstly, is the method for the description of suffering.
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[THE TRUTH OF SUFFERING]
[(i) BIRTH]
32. Now this word birth (jati) has many meanings. For in the passage
'[He recollects...] one birth (jati), two births' (D.i,81) it is becoming. In
the passage 'Visakha, there is a kind (jati) of ascetics called Niganthas
(Jains)' (A.i,206) it is a monastic order. In the passage 'Birth (jati) is
included in two aggregates' (Dhk. 15) it is the characteristic of whatever
is formed. In the passage 'His birth is due to the first consciousness
arisen, the first cognition manifested, in the mother's womb' (Vin.i,93)
it is rebirth-linking. [499] In the passage 'As soon as he was born
(sampatijata), Ananda, the Bodhisatta ...' (M.iii,123) it is parturition. In
the passage 'One who is not rejected and despised on account of birth'
(A.iii,152) it is clan. In the passage 'Sister, since I was born with the
noble birth' (M.ii,103) it is the noble one's virtue.
33. Here it should be regarded as the aggregates that occur from the
time of rebirth-linking up to the exit from the mother's womb in the case
of the womb-born, and as only the aggregates of rebirth-linking in the
case of the rest. But this is only an indirect treatment. In the direct sense,
however, it is the first manifestation of any aggregates that are mani-
fested in living beings when they are born anywhere that is called 'birth'.
34. Its characteristic is the first genesis in any [sphere of] becoming. Its
function is to consign [to a sphere of becoming]. It is manifested as an
emerging here from a past becoming; or it is manifested as the varied-
ness of suffering.
But why is it suffering? Because it is the basis for many kind of suf-
fering.
8
For there are many kinds of suffering, that is to say, intrinsic
suffering (dukkha-dukkha),
9
suffering in change (viparinama-dukkha),
and suffering due to formations (sankhara-dukkha); and then concealed
suffering, exposed suffering, indirect suffering, and direct suffering.
35. Herein, bodily and mental painful feeling are called intrinsic suffering
because of their individual essence, their name, and their painftilness.
[Bodily and mental] pleasant feeling are called suffering in change be-
cause they are a cause for the arising of pain when they change (M.i,303).
Equanimous feeling and the remaining formations of the three planes are
called suffering due to formations because they are oppressed by rise and
fall. Such bodily and mental affliction as earache, toothache, fever born
of lust, fever born of hate, etc., is called concealed suffering because it
can only be known by questioning and because the infliction is not
openly evident; it is also called 'unevident suffering'. The affliction
produced by the thirty-two tortures,
10
etc., is called exposed suffering
because it can be known without questioning and because the infliction
is openly evident; it is also called 'evident suffering'. Except intrinsic
suffering, all given in the exposition of the truth of suffering [in the
Vibhahga] (Vbh. 99) beginning with birth are also called indirect suffering
because they are the basis for one kind of suffering or another. But
intrinsic suffering is called direct suffering.
36. Herein, this birth is suffering because it is the basis for the suffering
in the states of loss as made evident by the Blessed One by means of a
simile in the Balapandita Sutta (M.iii,165f.), etc., and for the suffering
that arises in the happy destinies in the human world and is classed as
'rooted in the descent into the womb', and so on. [500]
37. Here the suffering classed as 'rooted in the descent into the womb',
and so on, is this: When this being is born in the mother's womb, he is
not born inside a blue or red or white lotus, etc., but on the contrary, like
a worm in rotting fish, rotting dough, cess-pools, etc., he is born in the
belly in a position that is below the receptacle for undigested food (stom-
ach), above the receptacle for digested food (rectum), between the belly-
lining and the backbone, which is very cramped, quite dark, pervaded by
very fetid draughts redolent of various smells of ordure, and exception-
ally loathsome.
11
And on being reborn there, for ten months he under-
goes excessive suffering, being cooked like a pudding in a bag by the
heat produced in the mother's womb, and steamed like a dumpling of
dough, with no bending, stretching, and so on. So this, firstly, is the
suffering rooted in the descent into the womb.
38. When the mother suddenly stumbles or moves or sits down or gets
up or turns round, the extreme suffering he undergoes by being dragged
back and forth and jolted up and down, like a kid fallen into the hands of
a drunkard, or like a snake's young fallen into the hands of a snake-
charmer, and also the searing pain that he undergoes, as though he had
reappeared in the cold hells, when his mother drinks cold water, and as
though deluged by a rain of embers when she swallows hot rice gruel,
rice, etc., and as though undergoing the torture of the 'lye-pickling' (see
M.i,87), when she swallows anything salty or acidic, etc.—this is the
suffering rooted in gestation.
39. When the mother has an abortion, the pain that arises in him through
the cutting and rending in the place where the pain arises that is not fit to
be seen even by friends and intimates and companions—this is the suf-
fering rooted in abortion.
40. The pain that arises in him when the mother gives birth, through his
being turned upside-down by the kamma-produced winds [forces] and
flung into that most fearful passage from the womb, like an infernal
chasm, and lugged out through the extremely narrow mouth of the womb,
like an elephant through a keyhole, like a denizen of hell being pounded
to pulp by colliding rocks—this is the suffering rooted in parturition.
41. The pain that arises in him after he is born, and his body, which is as
delicate as a tender wound, is taken in the hands, bathed, washed, rubbed
with cloths, etc., and which pain is like being pricked with needle points
and gashed with razor blades, etc.—this is the suffering rooted in ventur-
ing outside the mother's womb. [501]
42. The pain that arises afterwards during the course of existence in one
who punishes himself, in one who devotes himself to the practice of
mortification and austerity according to the vows of the naked ascetics,
in one who starves through anger, and in one who hangs himself—this is
the suffering rooted in self-violence.
43. And that arising in one who undergoes flogging, imprisonment, etc.,
at the hands of others is the suffering rooted in others' violence.
So this birth is the basis for all this suffering. Hence this is said:
Now were no being born in hell again
The pain unbearable of scorching fires
And all the rest would then no footing gain;
Therefore the Sage pronounced that birth is pain.
Many the sorts of pain that beasts endure
When they are flogged with whips and sticks and goads,
Since birth among mem does this pain procure,
Birth there is pain: the consequence is sure.
While ghosts know pain in great variety
Through hunger, thirst, wind, sun and what not too,
None, unless born there, knows this misery;
So birth the Sage declares this pain to be.
In the world-interspace, where demons dwell
In searing cold and inspissated gloom,
Is pain requiring birth there for its spell;
So with the birth the pain ensues as well.
The horrible torment a being feels on coming out,
When he has spent long months shut up inside the mother's
womb—
A hellish tomb of excrement—would never come about
Without rebirth: that birth is pain there is no room for doubt.
But why elaborate? At any time or anywhere
Can there exist a painful state if birth do not precede?
Indeed this Sage so great, when he expounded pain, took care
First to declare rebirth as pain, the condition needed there.
This, firstly, is the exposition of birth. [502]
[(ii) AGEING]
44. Ageing is suffering: ageing is twofold; as a characteristic of what-
ever is formed, and in the case of a continuity, as the oldness of aggre-
gates included in a single becoming, which oldness is known as broken-
ness' and so on (see M.iii,249). The latter is intended here.
But this ageing has as its characteristic the maturing (ripening) of
aggregates. Its function is to lead on to death. It is manifested as the
vanishing of youth. It is suffering because of the suffering due to forma-
tions and because it is a basis for suffering.
45. Ageing is the basis for the bodily and mental suffering that arises
owing to many conditions such as leadenness in all the limbs, decline
and warping of the faculties, vanishing of youth, undermining of strength,
loss of memory and intelligence, contempt on the part of others, and so
on.
Hence this is said:
With leadenness in every limb,
With every faculty declining,
With vanishing of youthfulness*
With memory and wit grown dim,
With strength now drained by undermining,
With growing unattractiveness
To wife and family and then
With dotage coming on, what pain
Alike of body and of mind
A mortal must expect to find!
Since ageing all of this will bring,
Ageing is well named suffering.
This is the exposition of ageing.
[(iii) DEATH]
46. Death is suffering: death too is twofold, as a characteristic of the
formed, with reference to which it is said, 'Ageing and death are in-
cluded in the aggregates' (Dhk. 15), and as the severing of the connexion
of the life faculty included in a single becoming, with reference to which
it is said, 'So mortals are in constant fear ... that they will die' (Sn. 576).
The latter is intended here. Death with birth as its condition, death by
violence, death by natural causes, death from exhaustion of the life span,
death from exhaustion of merit, are names for it.
47. It has the characteristic of a fall. Its function is to disjoin. It is
manifested as absence from the destiny [in which there was the rebirth].
It should be understood as suffering because it is a basis for suffering.
Hence this is said:
Without distinction as they die
Pain grips their minds impartially
When wicked men their foul deeds see
Or sign of new rebirth, may be,
Also when good men cannot bear
To part from all that they hold dear.
Then bodily pain severs sinews,
Joints and so on, and continues [503]
Torture unbearable, which racks
All those whose vitals death attacks
With grip that shall no more relax.'
Death is the basis of such pain,
And this suffices to explain
Why death the name of pain should gain.
This is the exposition of death.
[(iv) SORROW]
48. As regards sorrow, etc., sorrow is a burning in the mind in one
affected by loss of relatives, and so on. Although in meaning it is the
same as grief, nevertheless it has inner consuming as its characteristic,
its function is completely to consume the mind. It is manifested as con-
tinual sorrowing. It is suffering because it is intrinsic suffering and be-
cause it is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
Sorrow is a poisoned dart
That penetrates a being's heart;
Setting up a burning there
Like burning with a red-hot spear.
This state of mind brings future pain (see Ch. XVII, §273f.)
Such as disease, and then again
Ageing and death, so one may tell
Wherefor it is called pain as well.
This is the exposition of sorrow.
[(v) LAMENTATION]
49. Lamentation is verbal clamour on the part of one affected by loss of
relatives and so on. It has crying out as its characteristic. Its function is
proclaiming virtues and vices. It is manifested as tumult. It is suffering
because it is a state of suffering due to formations and because it is a
basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
Now when a man is struck by sorrow's dart and he laments
The pain he is already undergoing he augments
With pain born of dry throat and lips and palate, hard to bear.
And so lamenting too is pain, the Buddha did declare.
This is the exposition of lamentation.
[(vi) PAIN]
50. Pain is bodily pain. Its characteristic is the oppression of the body.
Its function is to cause grief in the foolish. It is manifested as bodily af-
fliction. It is suffering because it is intrinsic suffering, and because it
brings mental suffering. Hence this is said:
Pain distresses bodily,
Thereby distressing mentally again;
So acting fundamentally,
It therefore is especially called pain.
This is the exposition of pain. [504]
[(vii) GRIEF]
51. Grief is mental pain. Its characteristic is mental oppression. Its func-
tion is to distress the mind. It is manifested as mental affliction. It is
suffering because it is intrinsic suffering, and because it brings bodily
suffering. For those who are gripped by mental pain tear their hair, weep,
thump their breasts, and twist and writhe; they throw themselves upside-
down,
12
use the knife, swallow poison, hang themselves with ropes, walk
into fires, and undergo many kinds of suffering. Hence this is said:
Though grief itself distresses mind,
It makes distress of bodily kind occur,
And that is why this mental grief
Is pain, as those that have no grief aver.
This is the exposition of grief.
[(viii) DESPAIR]
52. Despair is the same as the humour produced by excessive mental
suffering in one affected by loss of relatives, and so on. Some say that it
is one of the states included in the formations aggregate. Its characteris-
tic is burning of the mind. Its function is to bemoan. It is manifested as
dejection. It is suffering because it is suffering due to formations, be-
cause of the burning of the mind, and because of bodily dejection. Hence
this is said:
So great the pain despair imparts
It burns the heart as with fever's flame;
The body's function it impairs
And so despair borrows from pain its name.
This is the exposition of despair.
53. Sorrow is like the cooking [of oil, etc.]
13
in a pot over a slow fire.
Lamentation is like its boiling over from the pot when cooking over a
quick fire. Despair is like what remains in the pot after it has boiled over
and is unable to do so any more, going on cooking in the pot till it dries
up.
[(ix) ASSOCIATION WITH THE UNLOVED]
54. Association with the unloved is meeting with disagreeable beings
and formations (inanimate things). Its characteristic is association with
the undesirable. Its function is to distress the mind. It is manifested as a
harmful state. It is suffering because it is a basis for suffering. Hence this
is said:
The mere sight of an unloved thing
Brings firstly mental suffering,
And suffering of body too
Through touching it can then ensue.
And we therefore may recognize,
Since meeting the unloved gives rise
To either kind of pain, that He
Decided pain its name should be.
This is the exposition of association with the unloved. [505]
[(x) SEPARATION FROM THE LOVED]
55. Separation from the loved is to be parted from agreeable beings and
formations (inanimate things). Its characteristic is dissociation from de-
sirable objects. Its function is to arouse sorrow. It is manifested as loss.
It is suffering because it is a basis for the suffering of sorrow. Hence this
is said:
The dart of sorrow wounds the heart
Of fools who from their wealth must part or kin,
Which roughly should be grounds enough
For counting the loved lost as suffering.
This is the exposition of separation from the loved.
[(xi) NOT TO GET WHAT ONE WANTS]
56. Not to get what one wants: the want itself of some unobtainable
object [expressed] in such passages as 'Oh, that we were not subject to
birth!' (Vbh. 101) is called suffering since one does not get what is
wanted. Its characteristic is the wanting of an unobtainable object. Its
function is to seek that. It is manifested as disappointment. It is suffering
because it is a basis for suffering. Hence this is said:
When beings here expect to gain
Something they build their hopes upon
Which fails them, they are woebegone
With disappointment's numbing pain.
Thereof the cause is hope they wed
To something they cannot obtain:
'Not to get what one wants is pain'
The Conqueror has therefore said.
This is the exposition of not to get what one wants.
[(xii) THE FIVE AGGREGATES]
57. In short the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging:
Now birth and ageing and each thing
Told in describing suffering,
And those not mentioned, could not be
Were there no aggregates for clinging.
Wherefore these aggregates for clinging
Are taken in totality
As pain by Him, the Dhamma's King,
Who taught the end of suffering.
58. For birth, etc., thus oppress the pentad of aggregates [as objects] of
clinging as fire does fuel, as shooting does a target, as gadflies, flies,
etc., do a cow's body, as reapers do a field, as village raiders do a
village; and they are generated in the aggregates as weeds, creepers, etc.,
are on the ground, as flowers, fruits and sprouts are on trees.
59. And the aggregates [as objects] of clinging have birth as their initial
suffering, ageing as their medial suffering, and death as their final suf-
fering. The suffering due to burning in one who is the victim of the pain
that threatens death is sorrow. The suffering consisting in crying out by
one who is unable to bear that is lamentation. Next, the suffering con-
sisting in affliction of the body due to the contact of undesirable tangible
data, in other words, disturbance of the elements, is pain. [506] The
suffering oppressing the mind through resistance to that in ordinary people
oppressed by it, is grief. The suffering consisting in brooding14
in those
dejected by the augmentation of sorrow, etc., is despair. The suffering
consisting in frustration of wants in those whose hopes are disappointed
is not to get what one wants. So when their various aspects are exam-
ined, the aggregates [as objects] of clinging are themselves suffering.
60. It is impossible to tell it [all] without remainder, showing each kind
of suffering, even [by going on doing so] for many aeons, so the Blessed
One said 'In short the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging are suffer-
ing* in order to show in short how all that suffering is present in any of
the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging in the same way that the taste
of the water in the whole ocean is to be found in a single drop of its
water.
This is the exposition of the aggregates [as objects] of clinging.
This, firstly, is the method for the description of suffering.
Visuddhimagga - THE FACULTIES AND TRUTHS - Description of the truths
THE PATH
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[B. DESCRIPTION OF THE TRUTHS]
13. [494] The 'truths' next to that (Ch. XIV, §32) are the Four Noble
Truths; that is to say, the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the
origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, the noble
truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
14. Herein:
(I) As to class, and (2) derivation,
(3) Division by character, et cetera,
(4) As to meaning, (5) tracing out meaning,
And likewise (6) neither less nor more,
(7) As to order, (8) as to expounding
Birth and so on, (9) knowledge's function,
(10) As to division of the content,
(II) As to a simile, and (12) tetrad,
(13) As to void, (14) singlefold and so on,
(15) Similar and dissimilar—
Thus should be known the exposition
By those who know the teaching's order.
15. 1. Herein, as to class: the meanings of [the truths of] suffering,
etc., are analysed as four in each case that are 'real, not unreal, not other-
wise' (S.v,435) and must be penetrated by those penetrating suffering,
etc., according as it is said: * Suffering's meaning of oppressing, meaning
of being formed, meaning of burning, meaning of changing, these are
suffering's four meanings of suffering, which are real, not unreal, not
otherwise. Origin's meaning of accumulating, meaning of source, mean-
ing of bondage, meaning of impeding ... Cessation's meaning of escape,
meaning of seclusion, meaning of being unformed, meaning of death-
lessness ... The path's meaning of outlet, meaning of cause, meaning of
seeing, meaning of predominance, these are the path's meanings of path,
which are real, not unreal, not otherwise' (Ps.ii,104; cf. i,19). Likewise
'Suffering's meaning of oppressing, meaning of being formed, meaning
of burning, meaning of change, are its meaning of penetration to' (cf. Ps.
i,118), and so on. So suffering, etc., should be understood according to
the four meanings analysed in each case.
16. 2. As to derivation, 3. division by character, et cetera: here, how-
ever, firstly 'as to derivation' [of the word dukkha (suffering):] the word
du ('bad') is met with in the sense of vile (kucchita); for they call a vile
child a du-putta ('bad child'). The word kham ('-ness'), however is met
with in the sense of empty (tuccha), for they call empty space 'kham'.
And the first truth is vile because it is the haunt of many dangers, and it
is empty because it is devoid of the lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and
self conceived by rash people. So it is called dukkharh ('badness' =
suffering, pain), because of vileness and emptiness. [495]
17. [Samudaya (origin):] the word sam (= prefix 'con-') denotes con-
nection, as in the words samdgama (concourse, coming together), sameta
(congregated, gone together), and so on. The word u denotes rising up,
as in the words uppanna (arisen, uprisen), udita (ascended, gone up),
and so on. The word aya4
denotes a reason (karana). And this second
truth is the reason for the arising of suffering when combined with the
remaining conditions. So it is called dukkha-samudaya (the origin of
suffering) because it is the reason in combination for the arising of
suffering.
18. [Nirodha (cessation):] the word ni denotes absence, and the word
rodha, a prison.
5
Now the third truth is void of all destinies [by rebirth]
and so there is no constraint (rodha) of suffering here reckoned as the
prison of the round of rebirths; or when that cessation has been arrived
at, there is no more constraint of suffering reckoned as the prison of the
round of rebirths. And being the opposite of that prison, it is called
dukkha-nirodha (cessation of suffering). Or alternatively, it is called
'cessation of suffering' because it is a condition for the cessation of
suffering consisting in non-arising.
19. [Nirodha-gamini patipada (way leading to cessation):] because the
fourth truth goes (leads) to the cessation of suffering since it confronts
that [cessation] as its object, and being the way to attain cessation of suf-
fering, it is called dukkha-nirodha-gdmini patipadd, the way leading to
the cessation of suffering.
20. They are called noble truths because the noble ones, the Buddhas,
etc., penetrate them, according as it is said: 'Bhikkhus, there are these
Four Noble Truths. What four? ... These, bhikkhus are the Four Noble
Truths' (S.v,425). The noble ones penetrate them, therefore they are
called noble truths.
21. Besides, the noble truths are the Noble One's truths, according as it
is said: 'Bhikkhus, in the world with its deities, its Maras and its Brahmas,
in this generation with its ascetics and brahmans, with its princes and
men, the Perfect One is the Noble One. That is why they are called noble
truths' (S.v,435). Or alternatively, they are called noble truths because
of the nobleness implied by their discovery, according as it is said:
'Bhikkhus, it is owing to the correct discovery of these Four Noble
Truths that the Perfect One is called accomplished, fully enlightened'
(S.v,433).
22. Besides, the noble truths are the truths that are noble. To be noble is
to be not unreal; the meaning is, not deceptive, according as it is said:
'Bhikkhus, these Four Noble Truths are real, not unreal, not otherwise,
that is why they are called noble truths' (S.v,435).
This is how the exposition should be known here as to derivation.
23. 3. How as to division by character, et ceteral The truth of suffer-
ing has the characteristic of afflicting. [496] Its function is to burn. It is
manifested as occurrence (as the course of an existence). The truth of
origin has the characteristic of producing. Its function is to prevent inter-
ruption. It is manifested as impediment. The truth of cessation has the
characteristic of peace. Its function is not to die. It is manifested as the
signless.
6
The truth of the path has the characteristic of an outlet. Its
function is to abandon defilements. It is manifested as emergence. They
have, moreover, the respective characteristics of occurrence, making occur,
non-occurrence, and making not occur, and likewise the characteristics
of the formed, craving, the unformed, and seeing. This is how the expo-
sition should be understood here as to characteristic, et cetera.
24. 4. As to meaning, 5. tracing out the meaning: as to 'meaning'
firstly, what is the 'meaning of truth' (saccattha)? It is that which, for
those who examine it with the eye of understanding, is not misleading
like an illusion, deceptive like a mirage, or undiscoverable like the self
of the sectarians, but is rather the domain of noble knowledge as the real
unmisleading actual state with its aspects of affliction, production, quiet,
and outlet. It is this real unmisleading actualness that should be under-
stood as the 'meaning of truth' just as [heat is] the characteristic of fire,
and just as [it is] in the nature of the world [that things are subject to
birth, ageing and death], according as it is said, 'Bhikkhus, this suffering
is real, not unreal, not otherwise' (S.v,430), and so on, in detail.
25. Furthermore:
There is no pain but is affliction,
And naught that is not pain afflicts:
This certainty that it afflicts
Is what is reckoned here as truth.
No other source of pain than craving,
Nor aught that source provides but pain:
This certainty in causing pain
Is why it is considered truth.
There is no peace except nibbana,
Nibbana cannot but be peace:
This certainty that it is peace
Is what is reckoned here as truth.
No outlet other than the path,
Nor fails the path to be the outlet:
Its status as the very outlet
Has made it recognized as truth.
This real infallibility,
Which is their true essential core,
Is what the wise declare to be
Truth's meaning common to all four.
This is how the exposition should be understand as to meaning.
26. 5. How as to tracing out the meaning? This word 'truth' (sacca) is
met with in various meanings. In such passages as 'Let him speak truth
and not be angry' (Dh. 224) it is verbal truth. In such passages as 'As-
cetics and brahmans base themselves on truth' (? ) it is the truth of ab-
stinence [from lying]. In such passages as [497] 'Why do they declare
diverse truths, the clever talkers that hold forth?' (Sn. 885) it is truth as
views. And in such passages as 'Truth is one, there is no second' (Sn.
884) it is, as truth in the ultimate sense, both nibbana and the path. In
such passages as 'Of the four truths how many are profitable?' (Vbh. 112;
Ps.ii,108) it is noble truth. And here too it is proper as noble truth. This
is how the exposition should be understood as to tracing out the mean-
ing.
27. 6. As to neither less nor more: but why are exactly four noble
truths stated, neither less nor more? Because no other exists and because
none can be eliminated. For there is none extra to them, nor can any one
of them be eliminated, according as it is said: 'Bhikkhus, that an ascetic
or brahman here should come and say: "This is not the truth of suffering,
the truth of suffering is another; I shall set aside this truth of suffering
and make known another truth of suffering"—that is not possible' (? )
and so on, and according as it is said: 'Bhikkhus, that any ascetic or
brahman should say thus: "This is not the first noble truth of suffering
that is taught by the ascetic Gotama; rejecting this first noble truth of
suffering, I shall make known another first noble truth of suffering"—
that is not possible' (S.v,428) and so on.
28. Furthermore, when announcing occurrence, [that is, the process of
existence,] the Blessed One announced it with a cause, and he announced
non-occurrence as having a means thereto. So they are stated as four at
the most as occurrence and non-occurrence and the cause of each. Like-
wise, they are stated as four since they have to be respectively fully
understood, abandoned, realized, and developed; and also since they are
the basis for craving, craving, the cessation of craving, and the means to
the cessation of craving; and also since they are the reliance [depended
upon], the delight in the reliance, removal of the reliance, and the means
to the removal of the reliance.
This is how the exposition should be understood here as to neither
less nor more.
29. 7. As to order: this too is only order of teaching (see Ch. XIV,
§211). The truth of suffering is given first since it is easy to understand
because of its grossness and because it is common to all living beings.
The truth of origin is given next to show its cause. Then the truth of
cessation, to make it known that with the cessation of the cause there is
the cessation of the fruit. The truth of the path comes last to show the
means to achieve that. [498]
30. Or alternatively, he announced the truth of suffering first to instill a
sense of urgency into living beings caught up in the enjoyment of the
pleasure of becoming; and next to that, the truth of origin to make it
known that that [suffering] neither comes about of itself as something
not made nor is it due to creation by an Overlord, etc. (see §85), but that
on the contrary it is due to this [cause]; after that, cessation, to instill
comfort by showing the escape to those who seek the escape from suf-
fering with a sense of urgency because overwhelmed by suffering with
its cause. And after that, the path that leads to cessation, to enable them
to attain cessation. This is how the exposition should be understood here
as to order.
31. 8. As to expounding birth and so on: the exposition should be
understood here in accordance with the expositions of the things begin-
ning with birth given by the Blessed One when describing the Four
Noble Truths, that is to say, (i) the twelve things in the description of
suffering: 'Birth is suffering, ageing is suffering,
7
death is suffering,
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are suffering, association
with the unloved is suffering, separation from the loved is suffering, not
to get what one wants is suffering, in short, the five aggregates [as
objects] of clinging are suffering' (Vbh. 99); and (ii) the threefold crav-
ing in the description of origin: 'That craving which produces further be-
coming, is accompanied by delight and greed, delighting in this and that,
that is to say, craving for sense desires, craving for becoming, craving
for non-becoming' (Vbh. 101); and (iii) nibbana, which has one meaning
only, in the description of cessation: 'That which is the remainderless
fading away and cessation of that same craving, giving it up, relinquish-
ing it, letting it go, not relying on it' (Vbh. 103); and (iv) the eight things
in the description of the path: 'What is the noble truth of the way leading
to the cessation of suffering? It is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to
say, right view, right thinking, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration' (Vbh. 104).
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka
[B. DESCRIPTION OF THE TRUTHS]
13. [494] The 'truths' next to that (Ch. XIV, §32) are the Four Noble
Truths; that is to say, the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the
origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, the noble
truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
14. Herein:
(I) As to class, and (2) derivation,
(3) Division by character, et cetera,
(4) As to meaning, (5) tracing out meaning,
And likewise (6) neither less nor more,
(7) As to order, (8) as to expounding
Birth and so on, (9) knowledge's function,
(10) As to division of the content,
(II) As to a simile, and (12) tetrad,
(13) As to void, (14) singlefold and so on,
(15) Similar and dissimilar—
Thus should be known the exposition
By those who know the teaching's order.
15. 1. Herein, as to class: the meanings of [the truths of] suffering,
etc., are analysed as four in each case that are 'real, not unreal, not other-
wise' (S.v,435) and must be penetrated by those penetrating suffering,
etc., according as it is said: * Suffering's meaning of oppressing, meaning
of being formed, meaning of burning, meaning of changing, these are
suffering's four meanings of suffering, which are real, not unreal, not
otherwise. Origin's meaning of accumulating, meaning of source, mean-
ing of bondage, meaning of impeding ... Cessation's meaning of escape,
meaning of seclusion, meaning of being unformed, meaning of death-
lessness ... The path's meaning of outlet, meaning of cause, meaning of
seeing, meaning of predominance, these are the path's meanings of path,
which are real, not unreal, not otherwise' (Ps.ii,104; cf. i,19). Likewise
'Suffering's meaning of oppressing, meaning of being formed, meaning
of burning, meaning of change, are its meaning of penetration to' (cf. Ps.
i,118), and so on. So suffering, etc., should be understood according to
the four meanings analysed in each case.
16. 2. As to derivation, 3. division by character, et cetera: here, how-
ever, firstly 'as to derivation' [of the word dukkha (suffering):] the word
du ('bad') is met with in the sense of vile (kucchita); for they call a vile
child a du-putta ('bad child'). The word kham ('-ness'), however is met
with in the sense of empty (tuccha), for they call empty space 'kham'.
And the first truth is vile because it is the haunt of many dangers, and it
is empty because it is devoid of the lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and
self conceived by rash people. So it is called dukkharh ('badness' =
suffering, pain), because of vileness and emptiness. [495]
17. [Samudaya (origin):] the word sam (= prefix 'con-') denotes con-
nection, as in the words samdgama (concourse, coming together), sameta
(congregated, gone together), and so on. The word u denotes rising up,
as in the words uppanna (arisen, uprisen), udita (ascended, gone up),
and so on. The word aya4
denotes a reason (karana). And this second
truth is the reason for the arising of suffering when combined with the
remaining conditions. So it is called dukkha-samudaya (the origin of
suffering) because it is the reason in combination for the arising of
suffering.
18. [Nirodha (cessation):] the word ni denotes absence, and the word
rodha, a prison.
5
Now the third truth is void of all destinies [by rebirth]
and so there is no constraint (rodha) of suffering here reckoned as the
prison of the round of rebirths; or when that cessation has been arrived
at, there is no more constraint of suffering reckoned as the prison of the
round of rebirths. And being the opposite of that prison, it is called
dukkha-nirodha (cessation of suffering). Or alternatively, it is called
'cessation of suffering' because it is a condition for the cessation of
suffering consisting in non-arising.
19. [Nirodha-gamini patipada (way leading to cessation):] because the
fourth truth goes (leads) to the cessation of suffering since it confronts
that [cessation] as its object, and being the way to attain cessation of suf-
fering, it is called dukkha-nirodha-gdmini patipadd, the way leading to
the cessation of suffering.
20. They are called noble truths because the noble ones, the Buddhas,
etc., penetrate them, according as it is said: 'Bhikkhus, there are these
Four Noble Truths. What four? ... These, bhikkhus are the Four Noble
Truths' (S.v,425). The noble ones penetrate them, therefore they are
called noble truths.
21. Besides, the noble truths are the Noble One's truths, according as it
is said: 'Bhikkhus, in the world with its deities, its Maras and its Brahmas,
in this generation with its ascetics and brahmans, with its princes and
men, the Perfect One is the Noble One. That is why they are called noble
truths' (S.v,435). Or alternatively, they are called noble truths because
of the nobleness implied by their discovery, according as it is said:
'Bhikkhus, it is owing to the correct discovery of these Four Noble
Truths that the Perfect One is called accomplished, fully enlightened'
(S.v,433).
22. Besides, the noble truths are the truths that are noble. To be noble is
to be not unreal; the meaning is, not deceptive, according as it is said:
'Bhikkhus, these Four Noble Truths are real, not unreal, not otherwise,
that is why they are called noble truths' (S.v,435).
This is how the exposition should be known here as to derivation.
23. 3. How as to division by character, et ceteral The truth of suffer-
ing has the characteristic of afflicting. [496] Its function is to burn. It is
manifested as occurrence (as the course of an existence). The truth of
origin has the characteristic of producing. Its function is to prevent inter-
ruption. It is manifested as impediment. The truth of cessation has the
characteristic of peace. Its function is not to die. It is manifested as the
signless.
6
The truth of the path has the characteristic of an outlet. Its
function is to abandon defilements. It is manifested as emergence. They
have, moreover, the respective characteristics of occurrence, making occur,
non-occurrence, and making not occur, and likewise the characteristics
of the formed, craving, the unformed, and seeing. This is how the expo-
sition should be understood here as to characteristic, et cetera.
24. 4. As to meaning, 5. tracing out the meaning: as to 'meaning'
firstly, what is the 'meaning of truth' (saccattha)? It is that which, for
those who examine it with the eye of understanding, is not misleading
like an illusion, deceptive like a mirage, or undiscoverable like the self
of the sectarians, but is rather the domain of noble knowledge as the real
unmisleading actual state with its aspects of affliction, production, quiet,
and outlet. It is this real unmisleading actualness that should be under-
stood as the 'meaning of truth' just as [heat is] the characteristic of fire,
and just as [it is] in the nature of the world [that things are subject to
birth, ageing and death], according as it is said, 'Bhikkhus, this suffering
is real, not unreal, not otherwise' (S.v,430), and so on, in detail.
25. Furthermore:
There is no pain but is affliction,
And naught that is not pain afflicts:
This certainty that it afflicts
Is what is reckoned here as truth.
No other source of pain than craving,
Nor aught that source provides but pain:
This certainty in causing pain
Is why it is considered truth.
There is no peace except nibbana,
Nibbana cannot but be peace:
This certainty that it is peace
Is what is reckoned here as truth.
No outlet other than the path,
Nor fails the path to be the outlet:
Its status as the very outlet
Has made it recognized as truth.
This real infallibility,
Which is their true essential core,
Is what the wise declare to be
Truth's meaning common to all four.
This is how the exposition should be understand as to meaning.
26. 5. How as to tracing out the meaning? This word 'truth' (sacca) is
met with in various meanings. In such passages as 'Let him speak truth
and not be angry' (Dh. 224) it is verbal truth. In such passages as 'As-
cetics and brahmans base themselves on truth' (? ) it is the truth of ab-
stinence [from lying]. In such passages as [497] 'Why do they declare
diverse truths, the clever talkers that hold forth?' (Sn. 885) it is truth as
views. And in such passages as 'Truth is one, there is no second' (Sn.
884) it is, as truth in the ultimate sense, both nibbana and the path. In
such passages as 'Of the four truths how many are profitable?' (Vbh. 112;
Ps.ii,108) it is noble truth. And here too it is proper as noble truth. This
is how the exposition should be understood as to tracing out the mean-
ing.
27. 6. As to neither less nor more: but why are exactly four noble
truths stated, neither less nor more? Because no other exists and because
none can be eliminated. For there is none extra to them, nor can any one
of them be eliminated, according as it is said: 'Bhikkhus, that an ascetic
or brahman here should come and say: "This is not the truth of suffering,
the truth of suffering is another; I shall set aside this truth of suffering
and make known another truth of suffering"—that is not possible' (? )
and so on, and according as it is said: 'Bhikkhus, that any ascetic or
brahman should say thus: "This is not the first noble truth of suffering
that is taught by the ascetic Gotama; rejecting this first noble truth of
suffering, I shall make known another first noble truth of suffering"—
that is not possible' (S.v,428) and so on.
28. Furthermore, when announcing occurrence, [that is, the process of
existence,] the Blessed One announced it with a cause, and he announced
non-occurrence as having a means thereto. So they are stated as four at
the most as occurrence and non-occurrence and the cause of each. Like-
wise, they are stated as four since they have to be respectively fully
understood, abandoned, realized, and developed; and also since they are
the basis for craving, craving, the cessation of craving, and the means to
the cessation of craving; and also since they are the reliance [depended
upon], the delight in the reliance, removal of the reliance, and the means
to the removal of the reliance.
This is how the exposition should be understood here as to neither
less nor more.
29. 7. As to order: this too is only order of teaching (see Ch. XIV,
§211). The truth of suffering is given first since it is easy to understand
because of its grossness and because it is common to all living beings.
The truth of origin is given next to show its cause. Then the truth of
cessation, to make it known that with the cessation of the cause there is
the cessation of the fruit. The truth of the path comes last to show the
means to achieve that. [498]
30. Or alternatively, he announced the truth of suffering first to instill a
sense of urgency into living beings caught up in the enjoyment of the
pleasure of becoming; and next to that, the truth of origin to make it
known that that [suffering] neither comes about of itself as something
not made nor is it due to creation by an Overlord, etc. (see §85), but that
on the contrary it is due to this [cause]; after that, cessation, to instill
comfort by showing the escape to those who seek the escape from suf-
fering with a sense of urgency because overwhelmed by suffering with
its cause. And after that, the path that leads to cessation, to enable them
to attain cessation. This is how the exposition should be understood here
as to order.
31. 8. As to expounding birth and so on: the exposition should be
understood here in accordance with the expositions of the things begin-
ning with birth given by the Blessed One when describing the Four
Noble Truths, that is to say, (i) the twelve things in the description of
suffering: 'Birth is suffering, ageing is suffering,
7
death is suffering,
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are suffering, association
with the unloved is suffering, separation from the loved is suffering, not
to get what one wants is suffering, in short, the five aggregates [as
objects] of clinging are suffering' (Vbh. 99); and (ii) the threefold crav-
ing in the description of origin: 'That craving which produces further be-
coming, is accompanied by delight and greed, delighting in this and that,
that is to say, craving for sense desires, craving for becoming, craving
for non-becoming' (Vbh. 101); and (iii) nibbana, which has one meaning
only, in the description of cessation: 'That which is the remainderless
fading away and cessation of that same craving, giving it up, relinquish-
ing it, letting it go, not relying on it' (Vbh. 103); and (iv) the eight things
in the description of the path: 'What is the noble truth of the way leading
to the cessation of suffering? It is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to
say, right view, right thinking, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration' (Vbh. 104).
Friday, February 25, 2011
Cattari Ariya Saccani / The Four Noble Truths
Cattari Ariya Saccani (Pali) / Catur Arya Satyani (Sanskrit) / The Four Noble Truths
1. Thus is the Noble Truth of Suffering ( dukkha / duhkha )
Birth- When we are born, we cry.Sickness- When we are sick, we are miserable.
Old age- When old, we will have ache and pains and find it hard to get around.
Death- None of us wants to die. We feel deep sorrow when someone dies.
Other things we suffer from are:
Being with those we dislike,
Being apart from those we love,
Not getting what we want,
All kinds of problems and disappointments that are unavoidable.
The Buddha did not deny that there is happiness in life, but he pointed out it does not last forever.
Eventually everyone meets with some kind of suffering. He said:
"There is happiness in life,
happiness in friendship,
happiness of a family,
happiness in a health y body and mind,
...but when one loses them, there is suffering."
Dhammapada
2. Thus is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering ( dukkha samudaya )
it is this craving ( tanha ) which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there,that is, craving for sensual pleasures ( kama tanha ), craving for existence ( bhava tanha ), craving for extermination ( vibhava tanha )
3. Thus is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering ( dukkha nirodha )
The end of suffering is non-attachment, or letting go of desire or craving ( tanha ). This is the state of Nibbana (Pali) / Nirvana (Sanskrit), where greed, hatred and delusion are extinct.Freedom from attachments to the five aggregates ( khandha / skandha ) of attachment is the end of suffering.
This freedom is not conditioned by causes, as are the conditioned states: Nibbana (Pali) / Nirvana (Sanskrit) is the non-attachment to conditioned experience.
To understand the unconditioned, we need to see for ourselves that everything that has a nature to be born has a nature to die:
that every phenomenon that has a cause is impermanent.
By letting go of attachment to desire for conditioned phenomena, desire can come to an end and we can be liberated from suffering.
4. Thus is the Noble Truth of the Path that leads to the Cessation of Suffering ( dukkha nirodha gaminipatipada )
This is also called majjhimā patipadā ( middle way / middle path ) or ariya atthangika magga / hasta ariya marga ( noble eightfold path )1. Right View / Understanding--samma ditthi
Right view (samyag-drsti / sammā-ditthi) can also be translated as "right perspectiveness", "right vision" or "right understanding". It is the right way of looking at life, nature, and the world as they really are. It is to understand how reality works. It acts as the reasoning for someone to start practicing the path. It explains the reasons for human existence, suffering, sickness, aging, death, the existence of greed, hatred, and delusion. It gives direction and efficacy to the other seven path factors. Right view begins with concepts and propositional knowledge, but through the practice of right concentration, it gradually becomes transmuted into wisdom, which can eradicate the fetters of the mind. Understanding of right view will inspire the person to lead a virtuous life in line with right view. In the Pali and Chinese canons, it is explained thus:And what is right view? Knowledge with reference to suffering ( dukkha / duhkha ), knowledge with reference to the origination of suffering ( dukkha samudaya ), knowledge with reference to the cessation of suffering ( dukkha nirodha ), knowledge with reference to the way of practice leading to the cessation of suffering ( dukkha nirodha gaminipatipada ): This is called right view.
There are two types of right view:
1. View with taints: this view is mundane. Having this type of view will bring merit and will support the favourable existence of the sentient being in the realm of samsara.
2. View without taints: this view is supramundane. It is a factor of the path and will lead the holder of this view toward self-awakening and liberation from the realm of samsara.
Right view has many facets; its elementary form is suitable for lay followers, while the other form, which requires deeper understanding, is suitable for monastics. Usually, it involves understanding the following reality:
1. Moral law of karma: Every action (by way of body, speech, and mind) will have karmic results (a.k.a. reaction). Wholesome and unwholesome actions will produce results and effects that correspond with the nature of that action. It is the right view about the moral process of the world.
2. The three characteristics ( tilakkhana / tri laksana): everything that arises will cease (impermanence). Mental and body phenomena are impermanent, source of suffering and not-self.
3. Suffering ( dukkha / duhkha ): Birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, distress, and despair are suffering. Not being able to obtain what one wants is also suffering. The arising of craving is the proximate cause of the arising of suffering and the cessation of craving is the proximate cause of the cessation of the suffering. The quality of ignorance is the root cause of the arising of suffering, and the elimination of this quality is the root cause of the cessation of suffering. The way leading to the cessation of suffering is the noble eightfold path. This type of right view is explained in terms of Four Noble Truths.
Right view for monastics is explained in detail in the Sammāditthi Sutta ("Right View Discourse"), in which Ven. Sariputta instructs that right view can alternately be attained by the thorough understanding of the unwholesome and the wholesome, the four nutriments, the twelve nidanas or the three taints. "Wrong view" arising from ignorance ( avijja / avidya ), is the precondition for wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness and wrong concentration. The practitioner should use right effort to abandon the wrong view and to enter into right view. Right mindfulness is used to constantly remain in right view.
The purpose of right view is to clear one's path of the majority of confusion, misunderstanding, and deluded thinking. It is a means to gain right understanding of reality. Right view should be held with a flexible, open mind, without clinging to that view as a dogmatic position. In this way, right view becomes a route to liberation rather than an obstacle.
2. Right Intention / Thought--samma sankappa
Right intention (samyak-samkalpa/sammā sankappa) can also be known as "right thought", "right resolve", "right conception", "right aspiration" or "the exertion of our own will to change". In this factor, the practitioner should constantly aspire to rid themselves of whatever qualities they know to be wrong and immoral. Correct understanding of right view will help the practitioner to discern the differences between right intention and wrong intention. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus:And what is right resolve? Being resolved on renunciation, on freedom from ill will, on harmlessness: This is called right resolve.
It means the renunciation of the worldly things and an accordant greater commitment to the spiritual path; good will; and a commitment to non-violence, or harmlessness, towards other living beings.
3. Right Speech--samma vaca
Right speech (samyag-vāca / sammā-vācā), deals with the way in which a Buddhist practitioner would best make use of their words. In the Pali Canon, it is explained thus:And what is right speech? Abstaining from lying, from divisive speech, from abusive speech, and from idle chatter: This is called right speech.
The Samaññaphala Sutta, Kevatta Sutta and Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta elaborate:
Abandoning false speech... He speaks the truth, holds to the truth, is firm, reliable, no deceiver of the world...
Abandoning divisive speech... What he has heard here he does not tell there to break those people apart from these people here...Thus reconciling those who have broken apart or cementing those who are united, he loves concord, delights in concord, enjoys concord, speaks things that create concord...
Abandoning abusive speech... He speaks words that are soothing to the ear, that are affectionate, that go to the heart, that are polite, appealing and pleasing to people at large...
Abandoning idle chatter... He speaks in season, speaks what is factual, what is in accordance with the goal, the Dhamma, and the Vinaya. He speaks words worth treasuring, seasonable, reasonable, circumscribed, connected with the goal...
The Abhaya Sutta elaborates:
In the case of words that the Tathagata knows to be unfactual, untrue, unbeneficial (or: not connected with the goal), unendearing and disagreeable to others, he does not say them.
In the case of words that the Tathagata knows to be factual, true, unbeneficial, unendearing and disagreeable to others, he does not say them.
In the case of words that the Tathagata knows to be factual, true, beneficial, but unendearing and disagreeable to others, he has a sense of the proper time for saying them.
In the case of words that the Tathagata knows to be unfactual, untrue, unbeneficial, but endearing and agreeable to others, he does not say them.
In the case of words that the Tathagata knows to be factual, true, unbeneficial, but endearing and agreeable to others, he does not say them.
In the case of words that the Tathagata knows to be factual, true, beneficial, and endearing and agreeable to others, he has a sense of the proper time for saying them. Why is that? Because the Tathagata has sympathy for living beings.
In every case, if it is not beneficial, one is not to say it. The Buddha followed this, for example, when asked questions of a metaphysical nature. When a question was unrelated to anything a person might experience (e.g. "Is the universe eternal?"), the Buddha dismissed the topic with the response: "It does not further."
4. Right Action--samma kammanta
Right action (samyak-karmānta / sammā-kammanta) can also be translated as "right conduct". As such, the practitioner should train oneself to be morally upright in one's activities, not acting in ways that would be corrupt or bring harm to oneself or to others. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained as:And what is right action? Abstaining from taking life, from stealing, and from illicit sex [or sexual misconduct]. This is called right action.
—Saccavibhanga Sutta
And what, monks, is right action? Abstaining from taking life, abstaining from stealing, abstaining from unchastity: This, monks, is called right action.
—Magga-vibhanga Sutta
For the lay follower, the Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta elaborates:
And how is one made pure in three ways by bodily action? There is the case where a certain person, abandoning the taking of life, abstains from the taking of life. He dwells with his... knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, compassionate for the welfare of all living beings. Abandoning the taking of what is not given, he abstains from taking what is not given. He does not take, in the manner of a thief, things in a village or a wilderness that belong to others and have not been given by them. Abandoning sensual misconduct, he abstains from sensual misconduct. He does not get sexually involved with those who are protected by their mothers, their fathers, their brothers, their sisters, their relatives, or their Dhamma; those with husbands, those who entail punishments, or even those crowned with flowers by another man. This is how one is made pure in three ways by bodily action.
For the monastic, the Samaññaphala Sutta adds:
Abandoning uncelibacy, he lives a celibate life, aloof, refraining from the sexual act that is the villager's way.
5. Right Livelihood--samma ajiva
Right livelihood (samyag-ājīva / sammā-ājīva). This means that practitioners ought not to engage in trades or occupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for other living beings. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus:And what is right livelihood? There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones, having abandoned dishonest livelihood, keeps his life going with right livelihood: This is called right livelihood.
The five types of businesses that are harmful to undertake are:
1. Business in weapons: trading in all kinds of weapons and instruments for killing.
2. Business in human beings: slave trading, prostitution, or the buying and selling of children or adults.
3. Business in meat: "meat" refers to the bodies of beings after they are killed. This includes breeding animals for slaughter.
4. Business in intoxicants: manufacturing or selling intoxicating drinks or addictive drugs.
5. Business in poison: producing or trading in any kind of toxic product designed to kill.
6. Right Effort--samma vayama
Right effort (samyag-vyāyāma / sammā-vāyāma) can also be translated as "right endeavor". In this factor, the practitioners should make a persisting effort to abandon all the wrong and harmful thoughts, words, and deeds. The practitioner should instead be persisting in giving rise to what would be good and useful to themselves and others in their thoughts, words, and deeds, without a thought for the difficulty or weariness involved. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus:And what, monks, is right effort?
(i) There is the case where a monk generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds and exerts his intent for the sake of the non-arising of evil, unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen.
(ii) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds and exerts his intent for the sake of the abandonment of evil, unskillful qualities that have arisen.
(iii) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds and exerts his intent for the sake of the arising of skillful qualities that have not yet arisen.
(iv) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds and exerts his intent for the maintenance, non-confusion, increase, plenitude, development, and culmination of skillful qualities that have arisen:
This, monks, is called right effort.
Although the above instruction is given to the male monastic order, it is also meant for the female monastic order and can be practiced by lay followers of both genders.
The above four phases of right effort mean to:
1. Prevent the unwholesome that has not yet arisen in oneself.
2. Let go of the unwholesome that has arisen in oneself.
3. Bring up the wholesome that has not yet arisen in oneself.
4. Maintain the wholesome that has arisen in oneself.
7. Right Mindfulness--samma sati
Right mindfulness (samyak-smrti / sammā-sati), also translated as "right memory", "right awareness" or "right attention". Here, practitioners should constantly keep their minds alert to phenomena that affect the body and mind. They should be mindful and deliberate, making sure not to act or speak due to inattention or forgetfulness. In the Pali Canon, it is explained thus:And what, monks, is right mindfulness?
(i) There is the case where a monk remains focused on the body in and of itself—ardent, aware, and mindful—putting away greed and distress with reference to the world.
(ii) He remains focused on feelings in and of themselves—ardent, aware, and mindful—putting away greed and distress with reference to the world.
(iii) He remains focused on the mind in and of itself—ardent, aware, and mindful—putting away greed and distress with reference to the world.
(iv) He remains focused on mental qualities in and of themselves—ardent, aware, and mindful—putting away greed and distress with reference to the world.
This, monks, is called right mindfulness.
Although the above instruction is given to the male monastic order, it is also meant for the female monastic order and can be practiced by lay followers from both genders.
Bhikkhu Bodhi, a monk of the Theravada tradition, further explains the concept of mindfulness as follows:
The mind is deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment. In the practice of right mindfulness the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, and alert, contemplating the present event. All judgments and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they occur, just registered and dropped.
The Maha Satipatthana Sutta also teaches that by mindfully observing these phenomena, we begin to discern its arising and subsiding and the Three Characteristics of Dharma in direct experience, which leads to the arising of insight and the qualities of dispassion, non-clinging, and release.
8. Right Concentration--samma samadhi
Right concentration (samyak-samādhi / sammā-samādhi), as its Sanskrit and Pali names indicate, is the practice of concentration (samadhi). As such, the practitioner concentrates on an object of attention until reaching full concentration and a state of meditative absorption (jhana). Traditionally, the practice of samadhi can be developed through mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), through visual objects (kasina), and through repetition of phrases (mantra). Samadhi is used to suppress the five hindrances in order to enter into jhana (Pali) / dhyana (Sanskrit). Jhana (Pali) / Dhyana (Sanskrit) is an instrument used for developing wisdom by cultivating insight and using it to examine true nature of phenomena with direct cognition. This leads to cutting off the defilements, realizing the dhamma (Pali) / dharma (Sanskrit) and, finally, self-awakening. During the practice of right concentration, the practitioner will need to investigate and verify their right view. In the process right knowledge will arise, followed by right liberation. In the Pali Canon, it is explained thus:And what is right concentration?
(i) Herein a monk aloof from sense desires, aloof from unwholesome thoughts, attains to and abides in the first meditative absorption [jhana / dhyana], which is detachment-born and accompanied by applied thought, sustained thought, joy, and bliss.
(ii) By allaying applied and sustained thought he attains to, and abides in the second jhana / dhyana, which is inner tranquillity, which is unification (of the mind), devoid of applied and sustained thought, and which has joy and bliss.
(iii) By detachment from joy he dwells in equanimity, mindful, and with clear comprehension and enjoys bliss in body, and attains to and abides in the third jhana / dhyana, which the noble ones [ariyas] call "dwelling in equanimity, mindfulness, and bliss".
(iv) By giving up of bliss and suffering, by the disappearance already of joy and sorrow, he attains to, and abides in the fourth jhana / dhyana, which is neither suffering nor bliss, and which is the purity of equanimity — mindfulness.
This is called right concentration.
Although this instruction is given to the male monastic order, it is also meant for the female monastic order and can be practiced by lay followers from both genders.
According to the Pali and Chinese canon, right concentration is dependent on the development of preceding path factors:
The Blessed One said: "Now what, monks, is noble right concentration with its supports and requisite conditions? Any singleness of mind equipped with these seven factors — right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness — is called noble right concentration with its supports and requisite conditions.
—Maha-cattarisaka Sutta
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