The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation
by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana
Chapter 4
The Higher Jhanas
In this chapter we will survey the higher states of jhana. First we will
discuss the remaining three jhanas of the fine-material sphere, using the
descriptive formulas of the suttas as our starting point and the later
literature as our source for the methods of practice that lead to these
attainments. Following this we will consider the four meditative states that
pertain to the immaterial sphere, which come to be called the immaterial
jhanas. Our examination will bring out the dynamic character of the process
by which the jhanas are successively achieved. The attainment of the higher
jhanas of the fine-material sphere, we will see, involves the successive
elimination of the grosser factors and the bringing to prominence of the
subtler ones, the attainment of the formless jhanas the replacement of
grosser objects with successively more refined objects. From our study it
will become clear that the jhanas link together in a graded sequence of
development in which the lower serves as basis for the higher and the higher
intensifies and purifies states already present in the lower. We will end
the chapter with a brief look at the connection between the jhanas and the
Buddhist teaching of rebirth.
The Higher Fine-material Jhanas
The formula for the attainment of the second jhana runs as follows:
With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained thought he enters and
dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification
of mind, is without applied thought and sustained thought, and is filled
with rapture and happiness born of concentration (M.i,181; Vbh. 245)
The second jhana, like the first, is attained by eliminating the factors to
be abandoned and by developing the factors of possession. In this case
however, the factors to be abandoned are the two initial factors of the
first jhana itself, applied thought and sustained thought; the factors of
possession are the three remaining jhana factors, rapture, happiness and
one-pointedness. Hence the formula begins "with the subsiding of applied
thought and sustained thought," and then mentions the jhana's positive
endowments.
After achieving the five kinds of mastery over the first jhana, a meditator
who wishes to reach the second jhana should enter the first jhana and
contemplate its defects. These are twofold: one, which might be called the
defect of proximate corruption, is the nearness of the five hindrances,
against which the first jhana provides only a relatively mild safeguard; the
other defect, inherent to the first jhana, is its inclusion of applied and
sustained thought, which now appear as gross, even as impediments needing to
be eliminated to attain the more peaceful and subtle second jhana.
By reflecting upon the second jhana as more tranquil and sublime than the
first, the meditator ends his attachment to the first jhana and engages in
renewed striving with the aim of reaching the higher stage. He directs his
mind to his meditation subject -- which must be one capable of inducing the
higher jhanas such as a kasina or the breath -- and resolves to overcome
applied and sustained thought. When his practice comes to maturity the two
kinds of thought subside and the second jhana arises. In the second jhana
only three of the original five jhana factors remain -- rapture, happiness,
and one-pointedness. Moreover, with the elimination of the two grosser
factors these have acquired a subtler and more peaceful tone. [1]
Besides the main jhana factors, the canonical formula includes several other
states in its description of the second jhana. "Internal confidence"
(ajjhattamsampasadanam), conveys the twofold meaning of faith and
tranquillity. In the first jhana the meditator's faith lacked full clarity
and serenity due to "the disturbance created by applied and sustained
thought, like water ruffled by ripples and wavelets" (Vism. 157; PP.163).
But when applied and sustained thought subside, the mind becomes very
peaceful and the meditator's faith acquires fuller confidence.
The formula also mentions unification of mind (cetaso ekodibhavam), which is
identified with one-pointedness or concentration. Though present in the
first jhana, concentration only gains special mention in connection with the
second jhana since it is here that it acquires eminence. In the first jhana
concentration was still imperfect, being subject to the disturbing influence
of applied and sustained thought. For the same reason this jhana, along with
its constituent rapture and happiness, is said to be born of concentration
(samadhijam): "It is only this concentration that is quite worthy to be
called 'concentration' because of its complete confidence and extreme
immobility due to absence of disturbance by applied and sustained thought"
(Vism.158; PP.164).
To attain the third jhana the meditator must use the same method he used to
ascend from the first jhana to the second. He must master the second jhana
in the five ways, enter and emerge from it, and reflect upon its defects. In
this case the defect of proximate corruption is the nearness of applied and
sustained thought, which threaten to disrupt the serenity of the second
jhana; its inherent defect is the presence of rapture, which now appears as
a gross factor that should be discarded. Aware of the imperfections in the
second jhana, the meditator cultivates indifference towards it and aspires
instead for the peace and sublimity of the third jhana, towards the
attainment of which he now directs his efforts. When his practice matures he
enters the third jhana, which has the two jhana factors that remain when the
rapture disappears, happiness and one-pointedness, and which the suttas
describe as follows:
With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equanimity, mindful and
discerning; and he experiences in his own person that happiness of which
the noble ones say: 'Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful' --
thus he enters and dwells in the third jhana. (M.i,182; Vbh.245)
The formula indicates that the third jhana contains, besides its two
defining factors, three additional components not included among the jhana
factors: equanimity, mindfulness and discernment. Equanimity is mentioned
twice. The Pali word for equanimity, upekkha, occurs in the texts with a
wide range of meanings, the most important being neutral feeling -- that is,
feeling which is neither painful nor pleasant -- and the mental quality of
inner balance or equipoise called "specific neutrality" (tatramajjhattata --
see Vism.161; PP.167). The equanimity referred to in the formula is a mode
of specific neutrality which belongs to the aggregate of mental formations
(sankharakkhandha) and thus should not be confused with equanimity as
neutral feeling. Though the two are often associated, each can exist
independently of the other, and in the third jhana equanimity as specific
neutrality co-exists with happiness or pleasant feeling.
The meditator in third jhana is also said to be mindful and discerning,
which points to another pair of frequently conjoined mental functions.
Mindfulness (sati), in this context, means the remembrance of the meditation
object, the constant bearing of the object in mind without allowing it to
float away. Discernment (sampajanna) is an aspect of wisdom or understanding
which scrutinizes the object and grasps its nature free from delusion.
Though these two factors were already present even in the first two jhanas,
they are first mentioned only in connection with the third since it is here
that their efficacy becomes manifest. The two are needed particularly to
avoid a return to rapture. Just as a suckling calf, removed from its mother
and left unguarded, again approaches the mother, so the happiness of jhana
tends to veer towards rapture, its natural partner, if unguarded by
mindfulness and discernment (Dhs. A.219). To prevent this and the consequent
loss of the third jhana is the task of mindfulness and discernment.
The attainment of the fourth jhana commences with the aforesaid procedure.
In this case the meditator sees that the third jhana is threatened by the
proximity of rapture, which is ever ready to swell up again due to its
natural affinity with happiness; he also sees that it is inherently
defective due to the presence of happiness, a gross factor which provides
fuel for clinging. He then contemplates the state where equanimous feeling
and one-pointedness subsist together -- the fourth jhana -- as far more
peaceful and secure than anything he has so far experienced, and therefore
as far more desirable. Taking as his object the same counterpart sign he
took for the earlier jhana, he strengthens his efforts in concentration for
the purpose of abandoning the gross factor of happiness and entering the
higher jhana. When his practice matures the mind enters absorption into the
fourth jhana:
With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous
disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhana,
which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to
equanimity. (M.i,182; Vbh.245)
The first part of this formula specifies the conditions for the attainment
of this jhana -- also called the neither-painful-nor-pleasant liberation of
mind (M.i, 296) -- to be the abandoning of four kinds of feeling
incompatible with it, the first two signifying bodily feelings, the latter
two the corresponding mental feelings. The formula also introduces several
new terms and phrases which have not been encountered previously. First, it
mentions a new feeling, neither-pain-nor-pleasure (adukkhamasukha), which
remains after the other four feelings have subsided. This kind of feeling
also called equanimous or neutral feeling, replaces happiness as the
concomitant feeling of the jhana and also figures as one of the jhana
factors. Thus this attainment has two jhana factors: neutral feeling and
one-pointedness of mind. Previously the ascent from one jhana to the next
was marked by the progressive elimination of the coarser jhana factors, but
none were added to replace those which were excluded. But now, in the move
from the third to the fourth jhana, a substitution occurs, neutral feeling
moving in to take the place of happiness.
In addition we also find a new phrase composed of familiar terms, "purity of
mindfulness due to equanimity" (upekkhasatiparisuddhi). The Vibhanga
explains: "This mindfulness is cleared, purified, clarified by equanimity"
(Vbh. 261), and Buddhaghosa adds: "for the mindfulness in this jhana is
quite purified, and its purification is effected by equanimity, not by
anything else" (Vism.167; PP.174). The equanimity which purifies the
mindfulness is not neutral feeling, as might be supposed, but specific
neutrality, the sublime impartiality free from attachment and aversion,
which also pertains to this jhana. Though both specific neutrality and
mindfulness were present in the lower three jhanas, none among these is said
to have "purity of mindfulness due to equanimity." The reason is that in the
lower jhanas the equanimity present was not purified itself, being
overshadowed by opposing states and lacking association with equanimous
feeling. It is like a crescent moon which exists by day but cannot be seen
because of the sunlight and the bright sky. But in the fourth jhana, where
equanimity gains the support of equanimous feeling, it shines forth like the
crescent moon at night and purifies mindfulness and the other associated
states (Vism. 169; PP.175).
The Immaterial Jhanas
Beyond the four jhanas lie four higher attainments in the scale of
concentration, referred to in the suttas as the "peaceful immaterial
liberations transcending material form" (santa vimokkha atikammarupe aruppa,
M.i,33). In the commentaries they are also called the immaterial jhanas, and
while this expression is not found in the suttas it seems appropriate in so
far as these states correspond to jhanic levels of consciousness and
continue the same process of mental unification initiated by the original
four jhanas, now sometimes called the fine-material jhanas. The immaterial
jhanas are designated, not by numerical names like their predecessors, but
by the names of their objective spheres: the base of boundless space, the
base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. [2] They receive the designation
"immaterial" or " formless" (arupa) because they are achieved by surmounting
all perceptions of material form, including the subtle form of the
counterpart sign which served as the object of the previous jhanas, and
because they are the subjective correlates of the immaterial planes of
existence.
Like the fine-material jhanas follow a fixed sequence and must be attained
in the order in which they are presented. That is, the meditator who wishes
to achieve the immaterial jhanas must begin with the base of boundless space
and then proceed step by step up to the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. However, an important difference
separates the modes of progress in the two cases. In the case of the
fine-material jhanas, the ascent from one jhana to another involves a
surmounting of jhana factors. To rise from the first jhana to the second the
meditator must eliminate applied thought and sustained thought, to rise from
the second to the third he must overcome rapture, and to rise from the third
to the fourth he must replace pleasant with neutral feeling. Thus progress
involves a reduction and refinement of the jhana factors, from the initial
five to the culmination in one-pointedness and neutral feeling.
Once the fourth jhana is reached the jhana factors remain constant, and in
higher ascent to the immaterial attainments there is no further elimination
of jhana factors. For this reason the formless jhanas, when classified from
the perspective of their factorial constitution as is done in the
Abhidhamma, are considered modes of the fourth jhana. They are all
two-factored jhanas, constituted by one-pointedness and equanimous feeling.
Rather than being determined by a surmounting of factors, the order of the
immaterial jhanas is determined by a surmounting of objects. Whereas for the
lower jhanas the object can remain constant but the factors must be changed,
for the immaterial jhanas the factors remain constant while the objects
change. The base of boundless space eliminates the kasina object of the
fourth jhana, the base of boundless consciousness surmounts the object of
the base of boundless space, the base of nothingness surmounts the object of
base of boundless consciousness, and the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception surmounts the objects the object of
the base of nothingness.
Because the objects become progressively more subtle at each level, the
jhana factors of equanimous feeling and one-pointedness, while remaining
constant in nature throughout, become correspondingly more refined in
quality. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with a simile of four pieces of cloth
of the same measurements, spun by the same person, yet made of thick, thin,
thinner and very thin thread respectively (Vism. 339; PP.369). Also, whereas
the four lower jhanas can each take a variety of objects -- the ten kasinas,
the in-and-out breath, etc. -- and do not stand in any integral relation to
these objects, the four immaterial jhanas each take a single object
inseparably related to the attainment itself. The first is attained solely
with the base of boundless space as object, the second with the base of
boundless consciousness, and so forth.
The motivation which initially leads a meditator to seek the immaterial
attainments is a clear recognition of the dangers inherent in material
existence: it is in virtue of matter that injuries and death by weapons and
knives occur that one is afflicted with diseases, subject of hunger and
thirst, while none of this takes place on the immaterial planes of existence
(M.i,410). Wishing to escape these dangers by taking rebirth in the
immaterial planes, the meditator must first attain the four fine-material
jhanas and master the fourth jhana with any kasina as object except the
omitted space kasina. By this much the meditator has risen above gross
matter, but he still has not transcended the subtle material form comprised
by the luminous counterpart sign which is the object of his jhana. To reach
the formless attainments the meditator, after emerging from the fourth
jhana, must consider that even that jhana, as refined as it is, still has an
object consisting in material form and thus is distantly connected with
gross matter; moreover, it is close to happiness, a factor of the third
jhana, and is far coarser than the immaterial states. The meditator sees the
base of boundless space, the first immaterial jhana, as more peaceful and
sublime than the fourth fine-material jhana and as more safely removed from
materiality.
Following these preparatory reflections, the meditator enters the fourth
jhana based on a kasina object and extends the counterpart sign of the
kasina "to the limit of the world-sphere, or as far as he likes." Then,
after emerging from the fourth jhana, he must remove the kasina by attending
exclusively to the space it has been made to cover without attending to the
kasina itself. Taking as his object the space left after the removal of the
kasina, the meditator adverts to it as "boundless space" or simply as
"space, space," striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he
cultivates this practice over and over, eventually the consciousness
pertaining to the base of boundless space arises with boundless space as its
object (Vism. 327-28; PP.355-56).
A meditator who has gained mastery over the base of boundless space, wishing
to attain as well the second immaterial jhana, must reflect upon the two
defects of the first attainment which are its proximity to the fine-material
jhanas and its grossness compared to the base of boundless consciousness.
Having in this way developed indifferent to the lower attainment, he must
next enter and emerge from the base of boundless space and then fix his
attention upon the consciousness that occurred there pervading the boundless
space. Since the space taken as the object by the first formless jhana was
boundless, the consciousness of that space also involves an aspect of
boundlessness, and it is to this boundless consciousness that the aspirant
for the next attainment adverts. He is not to attend to it merely as
boundless, but as "boundless consciousness" or simply as "consciousness." He
continues to cultivate this sign again and again until the consciousness
belonging to the base of boundless consciousness arises in absorption taking
as its object the boundless consciousness pertaining to the first immaterial
state (Vism. 331-32; PP.360-61).
To attain the next formless state, the base of nothingness, the meditator
who has mastered the base of boundless consciousness must contemplate its
defects in the same twofold manner and advert to the superior peacefulness
of the base of nothingness. Without giving any more attention to the base of
boundless consciousness, he should "give attention to the present
non-existence, voidness, secluded aspect of that same past consciousness
belonging to the base consisting of boundless space" (Vism. 333; PP.362). In
other words, the meditator is to focus upon the present absence or
non-existence of the consciousness belonging to the base of boundless space,
adverting to it over and over thus: "There is not, there is not" or "void,
void". When his efforts fructify there arises in absorption a consciousness
belonging to the base of nothingness, with the non-existence of the
consciousness of boundless space as its object. Whereas the second
immaterial state relates to the consciousness of boundless space positively,
by focusing upon the content of that consciousness and appropriating its
boundlessness, the third immaterial state relates to it negatively, by
excluding that consciousness from awareness and making the absence or
present non-existence of that consciousness its object.
The fourth and final immaterial jhana, the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception, is reached through the same
preliminary procedure. The meditator can also reflect upon the
unsatisfactoriness of perception, thinking: "Perception is a disease,
perception is a boil, perception is a dart ... this is peaceful, this is
sublime, that is to say, neither-perception-nor-non-perception" (M.ii,231).
In this way he ends his attachment to the base of nothingness and
strengthens his resolve to attain the next higher stage. He then adverts to
the four mental aggregates that constitute the attainment of the base of
nothingness -- its feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness
-- contemplating them as "peaceful, peaceful," reviewing that base and
striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he does so the
hindrances are suppressed, the mind passes through access and enters the
base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.
This jhana receives its name because, on the one hand, it lacks gross
perception with its function of clearly discerning objects, and thus cannot
be said to have perception; on the other, it retains a very subtle
perception, and thus cannot be said to be without perception. Because all
the mental functions are here reduced to the finest and most subtle level,
this jhana is also named the attainment with residual formations. At this
level the mind has reached the highest possible development in the direction
of pure serenity. It has attained the most intense degree of concentration,
becoming so refined that consciousness can no longer be described in terms
of existence or non-existence. Yet even this attainment, from the Buddhist
point of view, is still a mundane state which must finally give way to
insight that alone leads to true liberation.
The Jhanas and Rebirth
Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings in whom ignorance and craving
still linger are subject to rebirth following death. Their mode of rebirth
is determined by their kamma, their volitional action, wholesome kamma
issuing in a good rebirth and unwholesome kamma in a bad rebirth. As a kind
of wholesome kamma the attainment of jhana can play a key role in the
rebirth process, being considered a weighty good kamma which takes
precedence over other lesser kammas in determining the future rebirth of the
person who attains it.
Buddhist cosmology groups the numerous planes of existence into which
rebirth takes place into three broad spheres each of which comprises a
number of subsidiary planes. The sense-sphere (kamadhatu) is the field of
rebirth for evil deeds and for meritorious deeds falling short of the
jhanas; the fine-material sphere (rupadhatu), the field of rebirth for the
fine-material jhanas; and the immaterial sphere (arupadhatu), the field of
rebirth for the immaterial jhanas.
An unwholesome kamma, should it become determinative of rebirth, will lead
to a new existence in one of the four planes of misery belonging to the
sense-sphere: the hells, the animal kingdom, the sphere of afflicted
spirits, or the host of titans. A wholesome kamma of a subjhanic type
produces rebirth in one of the seven happy planes in the sense-sphere, the
human world or the six heavenly worlds.
Above the sense-sphere realms are the fine-material realms, into which
rebirth is gained only through the attainment of the fine-material jhanas.
The sixteen realms in this sphere are hierarchically ordered in correlation
with the four jhanas. Those who have practiced the first jhana to a minor
degree are reborn in the Realm of the Retinue of Brahma, to a moderate
degree in the Realm of the Ministers of Brahma, and to a superior degree in
the Realm of the Great Brahma. [3] Similarly, practicing the second jhana to
a minor degree brings rebirth in the Realm of Minor Lustre, to a moderate
degree in the Realm of Infinite Lustre, and to a superior degree the Realm
of Radiant Lustre. [4] Again, practicing the third jhana to a minor degree
brings rebirth in the Realm of Minor Aura, to a moderate degree in the Realm
of Infinite Aura, and to a superior degree in the Realm of Steady Aura. [5]
Corresponding to the fourth jhana there are seven realms: the Realm of Great
Reward, the Realm of Non-percipient Beings, and the five Pure Abodes.[6]
With this jhana the rebirth pattern deviates from the former one. It seems
that all beings who practice the fourth jhana of the mundane level without
reaching any supramundane attainment are reborn in the realm of Great
Reward. There is no differentiation by way of inferior, moderate or superior
grades of development. The Realm of Non-percipient Beings is reached by
those who, after attaining the fourth jhana, then use the power of their
meditation to take rebirth with only material bodies; they do not acquire
consciousness again until they pass away from this realm. The five Pure
Abodes are open only to non-returners (anagamis), noble disciples at the
penultimate stage of liberation who have eradicated the fetters binding them
to the sense-sphere and thence automatically take rebirth in higher realms,
where they attain arahatship and reach final deliverance.
Beyond the fine-material sphere lie the immaterial realms, which are four in
number -- the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness,
the base of nothingness, and the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. As should be evident, these are
realms of rebirth for those who, without having broken the fetters that bind
them to samsara, achieve and master one or another of the four immaterial
jhanas. Those mediators who have mastery over a formless attainment at the
time of death take rebirth in the appropriate plane, where they abide until
the kammic force of the jhana is exhausted. Then they pass away, to take
rebirth in some other realm as determined by their accumulated kamma. [7]
Notes:
[1] Based on the distinction between applied and sustained thought, the
Abhidhamma presents a fivefold division of the jhanas obtained by
recognizing the sequential rather than simultaneous elimination of the two
kinds of thought. On this account a meditator of duller faculties eliminates
applied thought first and attains a second jhana with four factors including
sustained thought, and a third jhana identical with the second jhana of the
fourfold scheme. In contrast a meditator of sharp faculties comprehends
quickly the defects of both applied and sustained thought and so eliminates
them both at once.
[2] Akasanancayatana, vinnanancayatana, akincannayatana, nevasannana
sannayatana
[3] Brahmaparisajja brahmapurohita, maha brahma.
[4] Paritabha, appamanabha, abhassara.
[5] Parittasubha, appamanasubha, subhakinha.
[6] Vehapphala, asannasatta, suddhavasa.
[7] A good summary of Buddhist cosmology and of the connection between kamma
and planes of rebirth can be found in Narada, A Manual of Abhidhamma.
pp.233-55.
Showing posts with label Jhana. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Jhana. Show all posts
Monday, August 1, 2011
Jhana - The First Jhana and Its Factors
The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation
by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana
Chapter 3
The First Jhana and Its Factors
The attainment of any jhana comes about through a twofold process of
development. On one side the states obstructive to it, called its factors of
abandonment, have to be eliminated, on the other the states composing it,
called its factors of possession, have to be acquired. In the case of the
first jhana the factors of abandonment are the five hindrances and the
factors of possession the five basic jhana factors. Both are alluded to in
the standard formula for the first jhana, the opening phrase referring to
the abandonment of the hindrances and the subsequent portion enumerating the
jhana factors:
Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of
mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by
applied thought and sustained thought with rapture and happiness born of
seclusion. (M.i,1818; Vbh.245)
In this chapter we will first discuss the five hindrances and their
abandonment, then we will investigate the jhana factors both individually
and by way of their combined contribution to the attainment of the first
jhana. We will close the chapter with some remarks on the ways of perfecting
the first jhana, a necessary preparation for the further development of
concentration.
The Abandoning of the Hindrances
The five hindrances (pancanivarana) are sensual desire, ill will, sloth and
torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt. This group, the principal
classification the Buddha uses for the obstacles to meditation, receives its
name because its five members hinder and envelop the mind, preventing
meditative development in the two spheres of serenity and insight. Hence the
Buddha calls them "obstructions, hindrances, corruptions of the mind which
weaken wisdom"(S.v,94).
The hindrance of sensual desire (kamachanda) is explained as desire for the
"five strands of sense pleasure," that is, for pleasant forms, sounds,
smells, tastes and tangibles. It ranges from subtle liking to powerful lust.
The hindrance of ill will (byapada) signifies aversion directed towards
disagreeable persons or things. It can vary in range from mild annoyance to
overpowering hatred. Thus the first two hindrances correspond to the first
two root defilements, greed and hate. The third root defilement, delusion,
is not enumerated separately among the hindrances but can be found
underlying the remaining three.
Sloth and torpor is a compound hindrance made up of two components: sloth
(thina), which is dullness, inertia or mental stiffness; and torpor
(middha), which is indolence or drowsiness. Restlessness and worry is
another double hindrance, restlessness (uddhacca) being explained as
excitement, agitation or disquietude, worry (kukkucca) as the sense of guilt
aroused by moral transgressions. Finally, the hindrance of doubt
(vicikiccha) is explained as uncertainty with regard to the Buddha, the
Dhamma, the Sangha and the training.
The Buddha offers two sets of similes to illustrate the detrimental effect
of the hindrances. The first compares the five hindrances to five types of
calamity: sensual desire is like a debt, ill will like a disease, sloth and
torpor like imprisonment, restless and worry like slavery, and doubt like
being lost on a desert road. Release from the hindrances is to be seen as
freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, emancipation from
slavery, and arriving at a place of safety (D.i,71-73). The second set of
similes compares the hindrances to five kinds of impurities affecting a bowl
of water, preventing a keen-sighted man from seeing his own reflection as it
really is. Sensual desire is like a bowl of water mixed with brightly
colored paints, ill will like a bowl of boiling water, sloth and torpor like
water covered by mossy plants, restlessness and worry like water blown into
ripples by the wind, and doubt like muddy water. Just as the keen-eyed man
would not be able to see his reflection in these five kinds of water, so one
whose mind is obsessed by the five hindrances does not know and see as it is
his own good, the good of others or the good of both (S.v,121-24). Although
there are numerous defilements opposed to the first jhana the five
hindrances alone are called its factors of abandoning. One reason according
to the Visuddhimagga, is that the hindrances are specifically obstructive to
jhana, each hindrance impeding in its own way the mind's capacity for
concentration.
The mind affected through lust by greed for varied objective fields does not
become concentrated on an object consisting in unity, or being overwhelmed
by lust, it does not enter on the way to abandoning the sense-desire
element. When pestered by ill will towards an object, it does not occur
uninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness and torpor, it is unwieldy. When
seized by agitation and worry, it is unquiet and buzzes about. When stricken
by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way to accomplish the attainment of
jhana. So it is these only that are called factors of abandonment because
they are specifically obstructive to jhana.(Vism.146: PP.152)
A second reason for confining the first jhana's factors of abandoning to the
five hindrances is to permit a direct alignment to be made between the
hindrances and the jhanic factors. Buddhaghosa states that the abandonment
of the five hindrances alone is mentioned in connection with jhana because
the hindrances are the direct enemies of the five jhana factors, which the
latter must eliminate and abolish. To support his point the commentator
cites a passage demonstrating a one-to-one correspondence between the jhana
factors and the hindrances: one-pointedness is opposed to sensual desire,
rapture to ill will, applied thought to sloth and torpor, happiness to
restlessness and worry, and sustained thought to doubt (Vism. 141;
PP.147).[1] Thus each jhana factor is seen as having the specific task of
eliminating a particular obstruction to the jhana and to correlate these
obstructions with the five jhana factors they are collected into a scheme of
five hindrances.
The standard passage describing the attainment of the first jhana says that
the jhana is entered upon by one who is "secluded from sense pleasures,
secluded from unwholesome states of mind." The Visuddhimagga explains that
there are three kinds of seclusion relevant to the present context --
namely, bodily seclusion (kayaviveka), mental seclusion (cittaviveka), and
seclusion by suppression (vikkhambhanaviveka) (Vism. 140; PP.145). These
three terms allude to two distinct sets of exegetical categories. The first
two belong to a threefold arrangement made up of bodily seclusion, mental
seclusion, and "seclusion from the substance" (upadhiviveka). The first
means physical withdrawal from active social engagement into a condition of
solitude for the purpose of devoting time and energy to spiritual
development. The second, which generally presupposes the first, means the
seclusion of the mind from its entanglement in defilements; it is in effect
equivalent to concentration of at least the access level. The third,
"seclusion from the substance," is Nibbana, liberation from the elements of
phenomenal existence. The achievement of the first jhana does not depend on
the third, which is its outcome rather than prerequisite, but it does
require physical solitude and the separation of the mind from defilements,
hence bodily and mental seclusion. The third type of seclusion pertinent to
the context, seclusion by suppression, belongs to a different scheme
generally discussed under the heading of "abandonment" (pahana) rather than
"seclusion." The type of abandonment required for the attainment of jhana is
abandonment by suppression, which means the removal of the hindrances by
force of concentration similar to the pressing down of weeds in a pond by
means of a porous pot.[2]
The work of overcoming the five hindrances is accomplished through the
gradual training (anupubbasikkha) which the Buddha has laid down so often in
the suttas, such as the Samannaphala Sutta and the Culahatthipadopama Sutta.
The gradual training is a step-by-step process designed to lead the
practitioner gradually to liberation. The training begins with moral
discipline, the undertaking and observance of specific rules of conduct
which enable the disciple to control the coarser modes of bodily and verbal
misconduct through which the hindrances find an outlet. With moral
discipline as a basis, the disciple practices the restraint of the senses.
He does not seize upon the general appearances of the beguiling features of
things, but guards and masters his sense faculties so that sensual
attractive and repugnant objects no longer become grounds for desire and
aversion. Then, endowed with the self-restraint, he develops mindfulness and
discernment (sati-sampajanna) in all his activities and postures, examining
everything he does with clear awareness as to its purpose and suitability.
He also cultivates contentment with a minimum of robes, food, shelter and
other requisites.
Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the disciple is prepared to go
into solitude to develop the jhanas, and it is here that he directly
confronts the five hindrances. The elimination of the hindrances requires
that the meditator honestly appraises his own mind. When sensuality, ill
will and the other hindrances are present, he must recognize that they are
present and he must investigate the conditions that lead to their arising:
the latter he must scrupulously avoid. The meditator must also understand
the appropriate antidotes for each of the five hindrances. The Buddha says
that all the hindrances arise through unwise consideration (ayoniso
manasikara) and that they can be eliminated by wise consideration (yoniso
manasikara). Each hindrance, however, has its own specific antidote. Thus
wise consideration of the repulsive feature of things is the antidote to
sensual desire; wise consideration of loving-kindness counteracts ill will;
wise consideration of the elements of effort, exertion and striving opposes
sloth and torpor; wise consideration of tranquillity of mind removes
restlessness and worry; and wise consideration of the real qualities of
things eliminates doubt (S.v,105-106).
Having given up covetousness [i.e. sensual desire] with regard to the world,
he dwells with a heart free of covetousness; he cleanses his mind from
covetousness. Having given up the blemish of ill will, he dwells without ill
will; friendly and compassionate towards all living beings, he cleanses his
mind from the blemishes of ill will. Having given up sloth and torpor, he
dwells free from sloth and torpor, in the perception of light; mindful and
clearly comprehending, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor. Having
given up restlessness and worry, he dwells without restlessness; his mind
being calmed within, he cleanses it from restlessness and worry. Having
given up doubt, he dwells as one who has passed beyond doubt; being free
from uncertainty about wholesome things, he cleanses his mind from doubt
....
And when he sees himself free of these five hindrances, joy arises; in him
who is joyful, rapture arises; in him whose mind is enraptured, the body is
stilled; the body being stilled, he feels happiness; and a happy mind finds
concentration. Then, quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from
unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which
is accompanied by applied thought and sustained thought, with rapture and
happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,73-74) [3]
The Factors of the First Jhana
The first jhana possesses five component factors: applied thought, sustained
thought, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness of mind. Four of these are
explicitly mentioned in the formula for the jhana; the fifth,
one-pointedness, is mentioned elsewhere in the suttas but is already
suggested by the notion of jhana itself. These five states receive their
name, first because they lead the mind from the level of ordinary
consciousness to the jhanic level, and second because they constitute the
first jhana and give it its distinct definition.
The jhana factors are first aroused by the meditator's initial efforts to
concentrate upon one of the prescribed objects for developing jhana. As he
fixes his mind on the preliminary object, such as a kasina disk, a point is
eventually reached where he can perceive the object as clearly with his eyes
closed as with them open. This visualized object is called the learning sign
(uggahanimitta). As he concentrates on the learning sign, his efforts call
into play the embryonic jhana factors, which grow in force, duration and
prominence as a result of the meditative exertion. These factors, being
incompatible with the hindrances, attenuate them, exclude them, and hold
them at bay. With continued practice the learning sign gives rise to a
purified luminous replica of itself called the counterpart sign
(patibhaganimitta), the manifestation of which marks the complete
suppression of the hindrances and the attainment of access concentration
(upacarasamadhi). All three events-the suppression of the hindrances, the
arising of the counterpart sign, and the attainment of access concentration
-- take place at precisely the same moment, without interval (Vism. 126;
PP.131). And though previously the process of mental cultivation may have
required the elimination of different hindrances at different times, when
access is achieved they all subside together:
Simultaneously with his acquiring the counterpart sign his lust is abandoned
by suppression owing to his giving no attention externally to sense desires
(as object). And owing to his abandoning of approval, ill will is abandoned
too, as pus is with the abandoning of blood. Likewise stiffness and torpor
is abandoned through exertion of energy, agitation and worry is abandoned
through devotion to peaceful things that cause no remorse; and uncertainty
about the Master who teaches the way, about the way, and about the fruit of
the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, is abandoned through
the actual experience of the distinction attained. So the five hindrances
are abandoned. (Vism. 189; PP.196)
Though the mental factors determinative of the first jhana are present in
access concentration, they do not as yet possess sufficient strength to
constitute the jhana, but are strong enough only to exclude the hindrances.
With continued practice, however, the nascent jhana factors grow in strength
until they are capable of issuing in jhana. Because of the instrumental role
these factors play both in the attainment and constitution of the first
jhana they are deserving of closer individual scrutiny.
Applied Thought (vitakka)
The word vitakka frequently appears in the texts in conjunction with the
word vicara. The pair signify two interconnected but distinct aspects of the
thought process, and to bring out the difference between them (as well as
their common character), we translate the one as applied thought and the
other as sustained thought.
In both the suttas and the Abhidhamma applied thought is defined as the
application of the mind to its object (cetaso abhiniropana), a function
which the Atthasalini illustrates thus: "Just as someone ascends the king's
palace in dependence on a relative of friend dear to the king, so the mind
ascends the object in dependence on applied thought" (Dhs.A.157). This
function of applying the mind to the object is common to the wide variety of
modes in which the mental factor of applied thought occurs, ranging from
sense discrimination to imagination, reasoning and deliberation and to the
practice of concentration culminating in the first jhana. Applied thought
can be unwholesome as in thoughts of sensual pleasure, ill will and cruelty,
or wholesome as in thoughts of renunciation, benevolence and compassion
(M.i,116).
In jhana applied through is invariably wholesome and its function of
directing the mind upon its object stands forth with special clarity. To
convey this the Visuddhimagga explains that in jhana the function of applied
thought is "to strike at and thresh -- for the meditator is said, in virtue
of it, to have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied
thought" (Vism.142;PP148). The Milindapanha makes the same point by defining
applied thought as absorption (appana): "Just as a carpenter drives a
well-fashioned piece of wood into a joint, so applied thought has the
characteristic of absorption" (Miln.62).
The object of jhana into which vitakka drives the mind and its concomitant
states is the counterpart sign, which emerges from the learning sign as the
hindrances are suppressed and the mind enters access concentration. The
Visuddhimagga explains the difference between the two signs thus:
In the learning sign any fault in the kasina is apparent. But the
counterpart sign appears as if breaking out from the learning sign, and a
hundred times, a thousand times more purified, like a looking-glass disk
drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the
moon's disk coming out from behind a cloud, like cranes against a thunder
cloud. But it has neither color nor shape; for if it had, it would be
cognizable by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension (by insight) and
stamped with the three characteristics. But it is not like that. For it is
born only of perception in one who has obtained concentration, being a mere
mode of appearance (Vism. 125-26; PP.130)
The counterpart sign is the object of both access concentration and jhana,
which differ neither in their object nor in the removal of the hindrances
but in the strength of their respective jhana factors. In the former the
factors are still weak, not yet fully developed, while in the jhana they are
strong enough to make the mind fully absorbed in the object. In this process
applied thought is the factor primarily responsible for directing the mind
towards the counterpart sign and thrusting it in with the force of full
absorption.
Sustained Thought (vicara)
Vicara seems to represent a more developed phase of the thought process than
vitakka. The commentaries explain that it has the characteristic of
"continued pressure" on the object (Vim. 142; PP.148). Applied thought is
described as the first impact of the mind on the object, the gross inceptive
phase of thought; sustained thought is described as the act of anchoring the
mind on the object, the subtle phase of continued mental pressure.
Buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between the two with a series of
similes. Applied thought is like striking a bell, sustained thought like the
ringing; applied thought is like a bee's flying towards a flower, sustained
thought like its buzzing around the flower; applied thought is like a
compass pin that stays fixed to the center of a circle, sustained thought
like the pin that revolves around (Vism. 142-43; PP.148-49).
These similes make it clear that applied thought and sustained thought
functionally associated, perform different tasks. Applied thought brings the
mind to the object, sustained thought fixes and anchors it there. Applied
thought focuses the mind on the object, sustained thought examines and
inspects what is focused on. Applied thought brings a deepening of
concentration by again and again leading the mind back to the same object,
sustained thought sustains the concentration achieved by keeping the mind
anchored on that object.
Rapture (piti)
The third factor present in the first jhana is piti, usually translated as
joy or rapture.[4] In the suttas piti is sometimes said to arise from
another quality called pamojja, translated as joy or gladness, which springs
up with the abandonment of the five hindrances. When the disciple sees the
five hindrances abandoned in himself "gladness arises within him; thus
gladdened, rapture arises in him; and when he is rapturous his body becomes
tranquil" (D.i,73). Tranquillity in turn leads to happiness, on the basis of
which the mind becomes concentrated. Thus rapture precedes the actual
arising of the first jhana, but persists through the remaining stages up to
the third jhana.
The Vibhanga defines piti as "gladness, joy, joyfulness, mirth, merriment,
exultation, exhilaration, and satisfaction of mind" (Vbh. 257). The
commentaries ascribe to it the characteristic of endearing, the function of
refreshing the body and mind or pervading with rapture, and the
manifestation as elation (Vism.143; PP.149). Shwe Zan Aung explains that
"piti abstracted means interest of varying degrees of intensity, in an
object felt as desirable or as calculated to bring happiness."[5]
When defined in terms of agency, piti is that which creates interest in the
object; when defined in terms of its nature it is the interest in the
object. Because it creates a positive interest in the object, the jhana
factor of rapture is able to counter and suppress the hindrance of ill will,
a state of aversion implying a negative evaluation of the object.
Rapture is graded into five categories: minor rapture, momentary rapture,
showering rapture, uplifting rapture and pervading rapture.[6] Minor rapture
is generally the first to appear in the progressive development of
meditation; it is capable of causing the hairs of the body to rise.
Momentary rapture, which is like lightning, comes next but cannot be
sustained for long. Showering rapture runs through the body in waves,
producing a thrill but without leaving a lasting impact. Uplifting rapture,
which can cause levitation, is more sustained but still tends to disturb
concentration, The form of rapture most conductive to the attainment of
jhana is all-pervading rapture, which is said to suffuse the whole body so
that it becomes like a full bladder or like a mountain cavern inundated with
a mighty flood of water. The Visuddhimagga states that what is intended by
the jhana factor of rapture is this all-pervading rapture "which is the root
of absorption and comes by growth into association with absorption"
(Vism.144; PP.151)
Happiness (sukha)
As a factor of the first jhana, sukha signifies pleasant feeling. The word
is explicitly defined in the sense by the Vibhanga in its analysis of the
first jhana: "Therein, what is happiness? Mental pleasure and happiness born
of mind-contact, the felt pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact,
pleasurable and happy feeling born of mind contact -- this is called
'happiness' " (Vbh.257). The Visuddhimagga explains that happiness in the
first jhana has the characteristic of gratifying, the function of
intensifying associated states, and as manifestation, the rendering of aid
to its associated states (Vism. 145; PP.151).
Rapture and happiness link together in a very close relationship, but though
the two are difficult to distinguish, they are not identical. Happiness is a
feeling (vedana);, rapture a mental formation (sankhara). Happiness always
accompanies rapture, so that when rapture is present happiness must always
be present; but rapture does not always accompany happiness, for in the
third jhana, as we will see, there is happiness but no rapture. The
Atthasalini, which explains rapture as "delight in the attaining of the
desired object" and happiness as "the enjoyment of the taste of what is
required," illustrates the difference by means of a simile:
Rapture is like a weary traveler in the desert in summer, who hears of, or
sees water of a shady wood. Ease [happiness] is like his enjoying the water
of entering the forest shade. For a man who, traveling along the path
through a great desert and overcome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous of
drink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask 'Where is water?' The other
would say, 'Beyond the wood is a dense forest with a natural lake. Go there,
and you will get some.' He, hearing these words, would be glad and delighted
and as he went would see lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground and become
more glad and delighted. Going onwards, he would see men with wet clothes
and hair, hear the sounds of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense
forest of green like a net of jewels growing by the edge of the natural
lake, he would see the water lily, the lotus, the white lily, etc., growing
in the lake, he would see the clear transparent water, he would be all the
more glad and delighted, would descend into the natural lake, bathe and
drink at pleasure and, his oppression being allayed, he would eat the fibers
and stalks of the lilies, adorn himself with the blue lotus, carry on his
shoulders the roots of the mandalaka, ascend from the lake, put on his
clothes, dry the bathing cloth in the sun, and in the cool shade where the
breeze blew ever so gently lay himself down and saw: 'O bliss! O bliss!'
Thus should this illustration be applied. The time of gladness and delight
from when he heard of the natural lake and the dense forest till he say the
water is like rapture having the manner of gladness and delight at the
object in view. The time when, after his bath and dried he laid himself down
in the cool shade, saying, 'O bliss! O bliss!' etc., is the sense of ease
[happiness] grown strong, established in that mode of enjoying the taste of
the object. [7]
Since rapture and happiness co-exist in the first jhana, this simile should
not be taken to imply that they are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to
suggest that rapture gains prominence before happiness, for which it helps
provide a causal foundation.
In the description of the first jhana, rapture and happiness are said to be
"born of seclusion" and to suffuse the whole body of the meditator in such a
way that there is no part of his body which remains unaffected by them:
Monks, secluded from sense pleasure ... a monk enters and dwells in the
first jhana. He steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the
rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that there is no part of his
entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness. Just as a
skilled bath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bathing powder in a
copper basin, sprinkle it again and again with water, and knead it together
so that the mass of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused, and saturated
with moisture inside and out yet would not ooze moisture, so a monk steeps,
drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of
seclusion, so that, there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused
with this rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,74)
One-pointedness (ekaggata)
Unlike the previous four jhana factors, one-pointedness is not specifically
mentioned in the standard formula for the first jhana, but it is included
among the jhana factors by the Mahavedalla Sutta (M.i,294) as well as in the
Abhidhamma and the commentaries. One-pointedness is a universal mental
concomitant, the factor by virtue of which the mind is centered upon its
object. It brings the mind to a single point, the point occupied by the
object.
One-pointedness is used in the text as a synonym for concentration (samadhi)
which has the characteristic of non-distraction, the function of eliminating
distractions, non-wavering as its manifestation, and happiness as its
proximate cause (Vism.85; PP.85). As a jhana factor one-pointedness is
always directed to a wholesome object and wards off unwholesome influences,
in particular the hindrance of sensual desire. As the hindrances are absent
in jhana one-pointedness acquires special strength, based on the previous
sustained effort of concentration.
Besides the five jhana factors, the first jhana contains a great number of
other mental factors functioning in unison as coordinate members of a single
state of consciousness. Already the Anupada Sutta lists such additional
components of the first jhana as contact, feeling, perception, volition,
consciousness, desire, decision, energy, mindfulness, equanimity and
attention (M.iii,25). In the Abhidhamma literature this is extended still
further up to thirty-three indispensable components. Nevertheless, only five
states are called the factors of the first jhana, for only these have the
functions of inhibiting the five hindrances and fixing the mind in
absorption. For the jhana to arise all these five factors must be present
simultaneously, exercising their special operations:
But applied thought directs the mind onto the object; sustained thought
keeps it anchored there. Happiness [rapture] produced by the success of the
effort refreshes the mind whose effort has succeeded through not being
distracted by those hindrances; and bliss [happiness] intensifies it for the
same reason. Then unification aided by this directing onto, this anchoring,
this refreshing and this intensifying, evenly and rightly centers the mind
with its remaining associated states on the object consisting in unity.
Consequently possession of five factors should be understood as the arising
of these five, namely, applied thought, sustained thought, happiness
[rapture], bliss [happiness], and unification of mind. For it is when these
are arisen that jhana is said to be arisen, which is why they are called the
five factors of possession. (Vism.146;PP.152)
Each jhana factor serves as support for the one which succeeds it. Applied
thought must direct the mind to its object in order for sustained thought to
anchor it there. Only when the mind is anchored can the interest develop
which will culminate in rapture. As rapture develops it brings happiness to
maturity, and this spiritual happiness, by providing an alternative to the
fickle pleasures of the senses, aids the growth of one-pointedness. In this
way, as Nagasena explains, all the other wholesome states lead to
concentration, which stands at their head like the apex on the roof of a
house (Miln. 38-39).
Perfecting the First Jhana
The difference between access and absorption concentration, as we have said,
does not lie in the absence of the hindrances, which is common to both, but
in the relative strength of the jhana factors. In access the factors are
weak so that concentration is fragile, comparable to a child who walks a few
steps and then falls down. But in absorption the jhana factors are strong
and well developed so that the mind can remain continuously in concentration
just as a healthy man can remain standing on his feet for a whole day and
night (Vism.126; PP.131).
Because full absorption offers the benefit of strengthened concentration, a
meditator who gains access is encouraged to strive for the attainment of
jhana. To develop his practice several important measures are recommended.
[8] The meditator should live in a suitable dwelling, rely upon a suitable
alms resort, avoid profitless talk, associate only with spiritually-minded
companions, make use only of suitable food, live in a congenial climate, and
maintain his practice in a suitable posture. He should also cultivate the
ten kinds of skill in absorption. He should clean his lodging and his
physical body so that they conduce to clear meditation, balance his
spiritual faculties by seeing that faith is balanced with wisdom and energy
with concentration, and he must be skillful in producing and developing the
sign of concentration (1-3). He should exert the mind when it is slack,
restrain it when it is agitated, encourage it when it is restless or
dejected, and look at the mind with equanimity when all is proceeding well
(4-7). The meditator should avoid distracting persons, should approach
people experienced in concentration, and should be firm in his resolution to
attain jhana (8-10).
After attaining the first jhana a few times the meditator is not advised to
set out immediately striving for the second jhana. This would be a foolish
and profitless spiritual ambition. Before he is prepared to make the second
jhana the goal of his endeavor he must first bring the first jhana to
perfection. If he is too eager to reach the second jhana before he has
perfected the first, he is likely to fail to gain the second and find
himself unable to regain the first. The Buddha compares such a meditator to
a foolish cow who, while still unfamiliar with her own pasture, sets out for
new pastures and gets lost in the mountains: she fails to find food or drink
and is unable to find her way home (A.iv, 418-19).
The perfecting of the first jhana involves two steps: the extension of the
sign and the achievement of the five masteries. The extension of the sign
means extending the size of the counterpart sign, the object of the jhana.
Beginning with a small area, the size of one or two fingers, the meditator
gradually learns to broaden the sign until the mental image can be made to
cover the world-sphere or even beyond (Vism. 152-53; PP.158-59).
Following this the meditator should try to acquire five kinds of mastery
over the jhana: mastery in adverting, in attaining, in resolving, in
emerging and in reviewing. [9] Mastery in adverting is the ability to advert
to the jhana factors one by one after emerging from the jhana, wherever he
wants, whenever he wants, and for as long as he wants. Mastery in attaining
is the ability to enter upon jhana quickly, mastery in resolving the ability
to remain in the jhana for exactly the pre-determined length of time,
mastery in emerging the ability to emerge from jhana quickly without
difficulty, and mastery in reviewing the ability to review the jhana and its
factors with retrospective knowledge immediately after adverting to them.
When the meditator has achieved this fivefold mastery, then he is ready to
strive for the second jhana.
Notes:
[1] Buddhaghosa ascribes the passage he cites in support of the
correspondence to the "Petaka," but it cannot be traced anywhere in the
present Tipitaka, nor in the exegetical work named Petakopadesa.
[2] The other two types of abandoning are by substitution of opposites
(tadangappahana), which means the replacement of unwholesome states by
wholesome ones specifically opposed to them, and abandoning by eradication
(samucchedappahana), the final destruction of defilements by the
supramundane paths. See Vism.693-96;PP.812-16.
[3] Adapted from Nyanaponika Thera, The Five Mental Hindrances and Their
Conquest (Wheel No. 26). This booklet contains a full compilation of texts
on the hindrances.
[4] Ven Nanamoli, in his translation of the Visuddhimagga, renders piti by
"happiness," but this rendering can be misleading since most translators use
"happiness" as a rendering for sukha, the pleasurable feeling present in the
jhana. We will render piti by "rapture," thus maintaining the connection of
the term with ecstatic meditative experience.
[5] Shwe Zan Aung, Compendium of Philosophy (London: Pali Text Society,
1960), p243.
[6] Khuddhikapiti, khanikapiti, okkantikapiti, ubbega piti and pharana piti.
Vism 143-44; PP. 149-51. Dhs.A.158.
[7] Dhs.A.160-61. Translation by Maung Tin, The Expositor (Atthasalini)
(London: Pali Text Society, 1921), i.155-56.
[8] The following is based on Vism. 126-35; PP.132-40
[9] Avajjanavasi, samapajjanavasi, adhitthanavasi, vutthanavasi,
paccavekkhanavasi. For a discussion see Vism. 154-55; PP.160-61. The
canonical source for the five masteries is the Patisambhidamagga, i.100.
by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana
Chapter 3
The First Jhana and Its Factors
The attainment of any jhana comes about through a twofold process of
development. On one side the states obstructive to it, called its factors of
abandonment, have to be eliminated, on the other the states composing it,
called its factors of possession, have to be acquired. In the case of the
first jhana the factors of abandonment are the five hindrances and the
factors of possession the five basic jhana factors. Both are alluded to in
the standard formula for the first jhana, the opening phrase referring to
the abandonment of the hindrances and the subsequent portion enumerating the
jhana factors:
Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of
mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by
applied thought and sustained thought with rapture and happiness born of
seclusion. (M.i,1818; Vbh.245)
In this chapter we will first discuss the five hindrances and their
abandonment, then we will investigate the jhana factors both individually
and by way of their combined contribution to the attainment of the first
jhana. We will close the chapter with some remarks on the ways of perfecting
the first jhana, a necessary preparation for the further development of
concentration.
The Abandoning of the Hindrances
The five hindrances (pancanivarana) are sensual desire, ill will, sloth and
torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt. This group, the principal
classification the Buddha uses for the obstacles to meditation, receives its
name because its five members hinder and envelop the mind, preventing
meditative development in the two spheres of serenity and insight. Hence the
Buddha calls them "obstructions, hindrances, corruptions of the mind which
weaken wisdom"(S.v,94).
The hindrance of sensual desire (kamachanda) is explained as desire for the
"five strands of sense pleasure," that is, for pleasant forms, sounds,
smells, tastes and tangibles. It ranges from subtle liking to powerful lust.
The hindrance of ill will (byapada) signifies aversion directed towards
disagreeable persons or things. It can vary in range from mild annoyance to
overpowering hatred. Thus the first two hindrances correspond to the first
two root defilements, greed and hate. The third root defilement, delusion,
is not enumerated separately among the hindrances but can be found
underlying the remaining three.
Sloth and torpor is a compound hindrance made up of two components: sloth
(thina), which is dullness, inertia or mental stiffness; and torpor
(middha), which is indolence or drowsiness. Restlessness and worry is
another double hindrance, restlessness (uddhacca) being explained as
excitement, agitation or disquietude, worry (kukkucca) as the sense of guilt
aroused by moral transgressions. Finally, the hindrance of doubt
(vicikiccha) is explained as uncertainty with regard to the Buddha, the
Dhamma, the Sangha and the training.
The Buddha offers two sets of similes to illustrate the detrimental effect
of the hindrances. The first compares the five hindrances to five types of
calamity: sensual desire is like a debt, ill will like a disease, sloth and
torpor like imprisonment, restless and worry like slavery, and doubt like
being lost on a desert road. Release from the hindrances is to be seen as
freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, emancipation from
slavery, and arriving at a place of safety (D.i,71-73). The second set of
similes compares the hindrances to five kinds of impurities affecting a bowl
of water, preventing a keen-sighted man from seeing his own reflection as it
really is. Sensual desire is like a bowl of water mixed with brightly
colored paints, ill will like a bowl of boiling water, sloth and torpor like
water covered by mossy plants, restlessness and worry like water blown into
ripples by the wind, and doubt like muddy water. Just as the keen-eyed man
would not be able to see his reflection in these five kinds of water, so one
whose mind is obsessed by the five hindrances does not know and see as it is
his own good, the good of others or the good of both (S.v,121-24). Although
there are numerous defilements opposed to the first jhana the five
hindrances alone are called its factors of abandoning. One reason according
to the Visuddhimagga, is that the hindrances are specifically obstructive to
jhana, each hindrance impeding in its own way the mind's capacity for
concentration.
The mind affected through lust by greed for varied objective fields does not
become concentrated on an object consisting in unity, or being overwhelmed
by lust, it does not enter on the way to abandoning the sense-desire
element. When pestered by ill will towards an object, it does not occur
uninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness and torpor, it is unwieldy. When
seized by agitation and worry, it is unquiet and buzzes about. When stricken
by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way to accomplish the attainment of
jhana. So it is these only that are called factors of abandonment because
they are specifically obstructive to jhana.(Vism.146: PP.152)
A second reason for confining the first jhana's factors of abandoning to the
five hindrances is to permit a direct alignment to be made between the
hindrances and the jhanic factors. Buddhaghosa states that the abandonment
of the five hindrances alone is mentioned in connection with jhana because
the hindrances are the direct enemies of the five jhana factors, which the
latter must eliminate and abolish. To support his point the commentator
cites a passage demonstrating a one-to-one correspondence between the jhana
factors and the hindrances: one-pointedness is opposed to sensual desire,
rapture to ill will, applied thought to sloth and torpor, happiness to
restlessness and worry, and sustained thought to doubt (Vism. 141;
PP.147).[1] Thus each jhana factor is seen as having the specific task of
eliminating a particular obstruction to the jhana and to correlate these
obstructions with the five jhana factors they are collected into a scheme of
five hindrances.
The standard passage describing the attainment of the first jhana says that
the jhana is entered upon by one who is "secluded from sense pleasures,
secluded from unwholesome states of mind." The Visuddhimagga explains that
there are three kinds of seclusion relevant to the present context --
namely, bodily seclusion (kayaviveka), mental seclusion (cittaviveka), and
seclusion by suppression (vikkhambhanaviveka) (Vism. 140; PP.145). These
three terms allude to two distinct sets of exegetical categories. The first
two belong to a threefold arrangement made up of bodily seclusion, mental
seclusion, and "seclusion from the substance" (upadhiviveka). The first
means physical withdrawal from active social engagement into a condition of
solitude for the purpose of devoting time and energy to spiritual
development. The second, which generally presupposes the first, means the
seclusion of the mind from its entanglement in defilements; it is in effect
equivalent to concentration of at least the access level. The third,
"seclusion from the substance," is Nibbana, liberation from the elements of
phenomenal existence. The achievement of the first jhana does not depend on
the third, which is its outcome rather than prerequisite, but it does
require physical solitude and the separation of the mind from defilements,
hence bodily and mental seclusion. The third type of seclusion pertinent to
the context, seclusion by suppression, belongs to a different scheme
generally discussed under the heading of "abandonment" (pahana) rather than
"seclusion." The type of abandonment required for the attainment of jhana is
abandonment by suppression, which means the removal of the hindrances by
force of concentration similar to the pressing down of weeds in a pond by
means of a porous pot.[2]
The work of overcoming the five hindrances is accomplished through the
gradual training (anupubbasikkha) which the Buddha has laid down so often in
the suttas, such as the Samannaphala Sutta and the Culahatthipadopama Sutta.
The gradual training is a step-by-step process designed to lead the
practitioner gradually to liberation. The training begins with moral
discipline, the undertaking and observance of specific rules of conduct
which enable the disciple to control the coarser modes of bodily and verbal
misconduct through which the hindrances find an outlet. With moral
discipline as a basis, the disciple practices the restraint of the senses.
He does not seize upon the general appearances of the beguiling features of
things, but guards and masters his sense faculties so that sensual
attractive and repugnant objects no longer become grounds for desire and
aversion. Then, endowed with the self-restraint, he develops mindfulness and
discernment (sati-sampajanna) in all his activities and postures, examining
everything he does with clear awareness as to its purpose and suitability.
He also cultivates contentment with a minimum of robes, food, shelter and
other requisites.
Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the disciple is prepared to go
into solitude to develop the jhanas, and it is here that he directly
confronts the five hindrances. The elimination of the hindrances requires
that the meditator honestly appraises his own mind. When sensuality, ill
will and the other hindrances are present, he must recognize that they are
present and he must investigate the conditions that lead to their arising:
the latter he must scrupulously avoid. The meditator must also understand
the appropriate antidotes for each of the five hindrances. The Buddha says
that all the hindrances arise through unwise consideration (ayoniso
manasikara) and that they can be eliminated by wise consideration (yoniso
manasikara). Each hindrance, however, has its own specific antidote. Thus
wise consideration of the repulsive feature of things is the antidote to
sensual desire; wise consideration of loving-kindness counteracts ill will;
wise consideration of the elements of effort, exertion and striving opposes
sloth and torpor; wise consideration of tranquillity of mind removes
restlessness and worry; and wise consideration of the real qualities of
things eliminates doubt (S.v,105-106).
Having given up covetousness [i.e. sensual desire] with regard to the world,
he dwells with a heart free of covetousness; he cleanses his mind from
covetousness. Having given up the blemish of ill will, he dwells without ill
will; friendly and compassionate towards all living beings, he cleanses his
mind from the blemishes of ill will. Having given up sloth and torpor, he
dwells free from sloth and torpor, in the perception of light; mindful and
clearly comprehending, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor. Having
given up restlessness and worry, he dwells without restlessness; his mind
being calmed within, he cleanses it from restlessness and worry. Having
given up doubt, he dwells as one who has passed beyond doubt; being free
from uncertainty about wholesome things, he cleanses his mind from doubt
....
And when he sees himself free of these five hindrances, joy arises; in him
who is joyful, rapture arises; in him whose mind is enraptured, the body is
stilled; the body being stilled, he feels happiness; and a happy mind finds
concentration. Then, quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from
unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which
is accompanied by applied thought and sustained thought, with rapture and
happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,73-74) [3]
The Factors of the First Jhana
The first jhana possesses five component factors: applied thought, sustained
thought, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness of mind. Four of these are
explicitly mentioned in the formula for the jhana; the fifth,
one-pointedness, is mentioned elsewhere in the suttas but is already
suggested by the notion of jhana itself. These five states receive their
name, first because they lead the mind from the level of ordinary
consciousness to the jhanic level, and second because they constitute the
first jhana and give it its distinct definition.
The jhana factors are first aroused by the meditator's initial efforts to
concentrate upon one of the prescribed objects for developing jhana. As he
fixes his mind on the preliminary object, such as a kasina disk, a point is
eventually reached where he can perceive the object as clearly with his eyes
closed as with them open. This visualized object is called the learning sign
(uggahanimitta). As he concentrates on the learning sign, his efforts call
into play the embryonic jhana factors, which grow in force, duration and
prominence as a result of the meditative exertion. These factors, being
incompatible with the hindrances, attenuate them, exclude them, and hold
them at bay. With continued practice the learning sign gives rise to a
purified luminous replica of itself called the counterpart sign
(patibhaganimitta), the manifestation of which marks the complete
suppression of the hindrances and the attainment of access concentration
(upacarasamadhi). All three events-the suppression of the hindrances, the
arising of the counterpart sign, and the attainment of access concentration
-- take place at precisely the same moment, without interval (Vism. 126;
PP.131). And though previously the process of mental cultivation may have
required the elimination of different hindrances at different times, when
access is achieved they all subside together:
Simultaneously with his acquiring the counterpart sign his lust is abandoned
by suppression owing to his giving no attention externally to sense desires
(as object). And owing to his abandoning of approval, ill will is abandoned
too, as pus is with the abandoning of blood. Likewise stiffness and torpor
is abandoned through exertion of energy, agitation and worry is abandoned
through devotion to peaceful things that cause no remorse; and uncertainty
about the Master who teaches the way, about the way, and about the fruit of
the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, is abandoned through
the actual experience of the distinction attained. So the five hindrances
are abandoned. (Vism. 189; PP.196)
Though the mental factors determinative of the first jhana are present in
access concentration, they do not as yet possess sufficient strength to
constitute the jhana, but are strong enough only to exclude the hindrances.
With continued practice, however, the nascent jhana factors grow in strength
until they are capable of issuing in jhana. Because of the instrumental role
these factors play both in the attainment and constitution of the first
jhana they are deserving of closer individual scrutiny.
Applied Thought (vitakka)
The word vitakka frequently appears in the texts in conjunction with the
word vicara. The pair signify two interconnected but distinct aspects of the
thought process, and to bring out the difference between them (as well as
their common character), we translate the one as applied thought and the
other as sustained thought.
In both the suttas and the Abhidhamma applied thought is defined as the
application of the mind to its object (cetaso abhiniropana), a function
which the Atthasalini illustrates thus: "Just as someone ascends the king's
palace in dependence on a relative of friend dear to the king, so the mind
ascends the object in dependence on applied thought" (Dhs.A.157). This
function of applying the mind to the object is common to the wide variety of
modes in which the mental factor of applied thought occurs, ranging from
sense discrimination to imagination, reasoning and deliberation and to the
practice of concentration culminating in the first jhana. Applied thought
can be unwholesome as in thoughts of sensual pleasure, ill will and cruelty,
or wholesome as in thoughts of renunciation, benevolence and compassion
(M.i,116).
In jhana applied through is invariably wholesome and its function of
directing the mind upon its object stands forth with special clarity. To
convey this the Visuddhimagga explains that in jhana the function of applied
thought is "to strike at and thresh -- for the meditator is said, in virtue
of it, to have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied
thought" (Vism.142;PP148). The Milindapanha makes the same point by defining
applied thought as absorption (appana): "Just as a carpenter drives a
well-fashioned piece of wood into a joint, so applied thought has the
characteristic of absorption" (Miln.62).
The object of jhana into which vitakka drives the mind and its concomitant
states is the counterpart sign, which emerges from the learning sign as the
hindrances are suppressed and the mind enters access concentration. The
Visuddhimagga explains the difference between the two signs thus:
In the learning sign any fault in the kasina is apparent. But the
counterpart sign appears as if breaking out from the learning sign, and a
hundred times, a thousand times more purified, like a looking-glass disk
drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the
moon's disk coming out from behind a cloud, like cranes against a thunder
cloud. But it has neither color nor shape; for if it had, it would be
cognizable by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension (by insight) and
stamped with the three characteristics. But it is not like that. For it is
born only of perception in one who has obtained concentration, being a mere
mode of appearance (Vism. 125-26; PP.130)
The counterpart sign is the object of both access concentration and jhana,
which differ neither in their object nor in the removal of the hindrances
but in the strength of their respective jhana factors. In the former the
factors are still weak, not yet fully developed, while in the jhana they are
strong enough to make the mind fully absorbed in the object. In this process
applied thought is the factor primarily responsible for directing the mind
towards the counterpart sign and thrusting it in with the force of full
absorption.
Sustained Thought (vicara)
Vicara seems to represent a more developed phase of the thought process than
vitakka. The commentaries explain that it has the characteristic of
"continued pressure" on the object (Vim. 142; PP.148). Applied thought is
described as the first impact of the mind on the object, the gross inceptive
phase of thought; sustained thought is described as the act of anchoring the
mind on the object, the subtle phase of continued mental pressure.
Buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between the two with a series of
similes. Applied thought is like striking a bell, sustained thought like the
ringing; applied thought is like a bee's flying towards a flower, sustained
thought like its buzzing around the flower; applied thought is like a
compass pin that stays fixed to the center of a circle, sustained thought
like the pin that revolves around (Vism. 142-43; PP.148-49).
These similes make it clear that applied thought and sustained thought
functionally associated, perform different tasks. Applied thought brings the
mind to the object, sustained thought fixes and anchors it there. Applied
thought focuses the mind on the object, sustained thought examines and
inspects what is focused on. Applied thought brings a deepening of
concentration by again and again leading the mind back to the same object,
sustained thought sustains the concentration achieved by keeping the mind
anchored on that object.
Rapture (piti)
The third factor present in the first jhana is piti, usually translated as
joy or rapture.[4] In the suttas piti is sometimes said to arise from
another quality called pamojja, translated as joy or gladness, which springs
up with the abandonment of the five hindrances. When the disciple sees the
five hindrances abandoned in himself "gladness arises within him; thus
gladdened, rapture arises in him; and when he is rapturous his body becomes
tranquil" (D.i,73). Tranquillity in turn leads to happiness, on the basis of
which the mind becomes concentrated. Thus rapture precedes the actual
arising of the first jhana, but persists through the remaining stages up to
the third jhana.
The Vibhanga defines piti as "gladness, joy, joyfulness, mirth, merriment,
exultation, exhilaration, and satisfaction of mind" (Vbh. 257). The
commentaries ascribe to it the characteristic of endearing, the function of
refreshing the body and mind or pervading with rapture, and the
manifestation as elation (Vism.143; PP.149). Shwe Zan Aung explains that
"piti abstracted means interest of varying degrees of intensity, in an
object felt as desirable or as calculated to bring happiness."[5]
When defined in terms of agency, piti is that which creates interest in the
object; when defined in terms of its nature it is the interest in the
object. Because it creates a positive interest in the object, the jhana
factor of rapture is able to counter and suppress the hindrance of ill will,
a state of aversion implying a negative evaluation of the object.
Rapture is graded into five categories: minor rapture, momentary rapture,
showering rapture, uplifting rapture and pervading rapture.[6] Minor rapture
is generally the first to appear in the progressive development of
meditation; it is capable of causing the hairs of the body to rise.
Momentary rapture, which is like lightning, comes next but cannot be
sustained for long. Showering rapture runs through the body in waves,
producing a thrill but without leaving a lasting impact. Uplifting rapture,
which can cause levitation, is more sustained but still tends to disturb
concentration, The form of rapture most conductive to the attainment of
jhana is all-pervading rapture, which is said to suffuse the whole body so
that it becomes like a full bladder or like a mountain cavern inundated with
a mighty flood of water. The Visuddhimagga states that what is intended by
the jhana factor of rapture is this all-pervading rapture "which is the root
of absorption and comes by growth into association with absorption"
(Vism.144; PP.151)
Happiness (sukha)
As a factor of the first jhana, sukha signifies pleasant feeling. The word
is explicitly defined in the sense by the Vibhanga in its analysis of the
first jhana: "Therein, what is happiness? Mental pleasure and happiness born
of mind-contact, the felt pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact,
pleasurable and happy feeling born of mind contact -- this is called
'happiness' " (Vbh.257). The Visuddhimagga explains that happiness in the
first jhana has the characteristic of gratifying, the function of
intensifying associated states, and as manifestation, the rendering of aid
to its associated states (Vism. 145; PP.151).
Rapture and happiness link together in a very close relationship, but though
the two are difficult to distinguish, they are not identical. Happiness is a
feeling (vedana);, rapture a mental formation (sankhara). Happiness always
accompanies rapture, so that when rapture is present happiness must always
be present; but rapture does not always accompany happiness, for in the
third jhana, as we will see, there is happiness but no rapture. The
Atthasalini, which explains rapture as "delight in the attaining of the
desired object" and happiness as "the enjoyment of the taste of what is
required," illustrates the difference by means of a simile:
Rapture is like a weary traveler in the desert in summer, who hears of, or
sees water of a shady wood. Ease [happiness] is like his enjoying the water
of entering the forest shade. For a man who, traveling along the path
through a great desert and overcome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous of
drink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask 'Where is water?' The other
would say, 'Beyond the wood is a dense forest with a natural lake. Go there,
and you will get some.' He, hearing these words, would be glad and delighted
and as he went would see lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground and become
more glad and delighted. Going onwards, he would see men with wet clothes
and hair, hear the sounds of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense
forest of green like a net of jewels growing by the edge of the natural
lake, he would see the water lily, the lotus, the white lily, etc., growing
in the lake, he would see the clear transparent water, he would be all the
more glad and delighted, would descend into the natural lake, bathe and
drink at pleasure and, his oppression being allayed, he would eat the fibers
and stalks of the lilies, adorn himself with the blue lotus, carry on his
shoulders the roots of the mandalaka, ascend from the lake, put on his
clothes, dry the bathing cloth in the sun, and in the cool shade where the
breeze blew ever so gently lay himself down and saw: 'O bliss! O bliss!'
Thus should this illustration be applied. The time of gladness and delight
from when he heard of the natural lake and the dense forest till he say the
water is like rapture having the manner of gladness and delight at the
object in view. The time when, after his bath and dried he laid himself down
in the cool shade, saying, 'O bliss! O bliss!' etc., is the sense of ease
[happiness] grown strong, established in that mode of enjoying the taste of
the object. [7]
Since rapture and happiness co-exist in the first jhana, this simile should
not be taken to imply that they are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to
suggest that rapture gains prominence before happiness, for which it helps
provide a causal foundation.
In the description of the first jhana, rapture and happiness are said to be
"born of seclusion" and to suffuse the whole body of the meditator in such a
way that there is no part of his body which remains unaffected by them:
Monks, secluded from sense pleasure ... a monk enters and dwells in the
first jhana. He steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the
rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that there is no part of his
entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness. Just as a
skilled bath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bathing powder in a
copper basin, sprinkle it again and again with water, and knead it together
so that the mass of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused, and saturated
with moisture inside and out yet would not ooze moisture, so a monk steeps,
drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of
seclusion, so that, there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused
with this rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,74)
One-pointedness (ekaggata)
Unlike the previous four jhana factors, one-pointedness is not specifically
mentioned in the standard formula for the first jhana, but it is included
among the jhana factors by the Mahavedalla Sutta (M.i,294) as well as in the
Abhidhamma and the commentaries. One-pointedness is a universal mental
concomitant, the factor by virtue of which the mind is centered upon its
object. It brings the mind to a single point, the point occupied by the
object.
One-pointedness is used in the text as a synonym for concentration (samadhi)
which has the characteristic of non-distraction, the function of eliminating
distractions, non-wavering as its manifestation, and happiness as its
proximate cause (Vism.85; PP.85). As a jhana factor one-pointedness is
always directed to a wholesome object and wards off unwholesome influences,
in particular the hindrance of sensual desire. As the hindrances are absent
in jhana one-pointedness acquires special strength, based on the previous
sustained effort of concentration.
Besides the five jhana factors, the first jhana contains a great number of
other mental factors functioning in unison as coordinate members of a single
state of consciousness. Already the Anupada Sutta lists such additional
components of the first jhana as contact, feeling, perception, volition,
consciousness, desire, decision, energy, mindfulness, equanimity and
attention (M.iii,25). In the Abhidhamma literature this is extended still
further up to thirty-three indispensable components. Nevertheless, only five
states are called the factors of the first jhana, for only these have the
functions of inhibiting the five hindrances and fixing the mind in
absorption. For the jhana to arise all these five factors must be present
simultaneously, exercising their special operations:
But applied thought directs the mind onto the object; sustained thought
keeps it anchored there. Happiness [rapture] produced by the success of the
effort refreshes the mind whose effort has succeeded through not being
distracted by those hindrances; and bliss [happiness] intensifies it for the
same reason. Then unification aided by this directing onto, this anchoring,
this refreshing and this intensifying, evenly and rightly centers the mind
with its remaining associated states on the object consisting in unity.
Consequently possession of five factors should be understood as the arising
of these five, namely, applied thought, sustained thought, happiness
[rapture], bliss [happiness], and unification of mind. For it is when these
are arisen that jhana is said to be arisen, which is why they are called the
five factors of possession. (Vism.146;PP.152)
Each jhana factor serves as support for the one which succeeds it. Applied
thought must direct the mind to its object in order for sustained thought to
anchor it there. Only when the mind is anchored can the interest develop
which will culminate in rapture. As rapture develops it brings happiness to
maturity, and this spiritual happiness, by providing an alternative to the
fickle pleasures of the senses, aids the growth of one-pointedness. In this
way, as Nagasena explains, all the other wholesome states lead to
concentration, which stands at their head like the apex on the roof of a
house (Miln. 38-39).
Perfecting the First Jhana
The difference between access and absorption concentration, as we have said,
does not lie in the absence of the hindrances, which is common to both, but
in the relative strength of the jhana factors. In access the factors are
weak so that concentration is fragile, comparable to a child who walks a few
steps and then falls down. But in absorption the jhana factors are strong
and well developed so that the mind can remain continuously in concentration
just as a healthy man can remain standing on his feet for a whole day and
night (Vism.126; PP.131).
Because full absorption offers the benefit of strengthened concentration, a
meditator who gains access is encouraged to strive for the attainment of
jhana. To develop his practice several important measures are recommended.
[8] The meditator should live in a suitable dwelling, rely upon a suitable
alms resort, avoid profitless talk, associate only with spiritually-minded
companions, make use only of suitable food, live in a congenial climate, and
maintain his practice in a suitable posture. He should also cultivate the
ten kinds of skill in absorption. He should clean his lodging and his
physical body so that they conduce to clear meditation, balance his
spiritual faculties by seeing that faith is balanced with wisdom and energy
with concentration, and he must be skillful in producing and developing the
sign of concentration (1-3). He should exert the mind when it is slack,
restrain it when it is agitated, encourage it when it is restless or
dejected, and look at the mind with equanimity when all is proceeding well
(4-7). The meditator should avoid distracting persons, should approach
people experienced in concentration, and should be firm in his resolution to
attain jhana (8-10).
After attaining the first jhana a few times the meditator is not advised to
set out immediately striving for the second jhana. This would be a foolish
and profitless spiritual ambition. Before he is prepared to make the second
jhana the goal of his endeavor he must first bring the first jhana to
perfection. If he is too eager to reach the second jhana before he has
perfected the first, he is likely to fail to gain the second and find
himself unable to regain the first. The Buddha compares such a meditator to
a foolish cow who, while still unfamiliar with her own pasture, sets out for
new pastures and gets lost in the mountains: she fails to find food or drink
and is unable to find her way home (A.iv, 418-19).
The perfecting of the first jhana involves two steps: the extension of the
sign and the achievement of the five masteries. The extension of the sign
means extending the size of the counterpart sign, the object of the jhana.
Beginning with a small area, the size of one or two fingers, the meditator
gradually learns to broaden the sign until the mental image can be made to
cover the world-sphere or even beyond (Vism. 152-53; PP.158-59).
Following this the meditator should try to acquire five kinds of mastery
over the jhana: mastery in adverting, in attaining, in resolving, in
emerging and in reviewing. [9] Mastery in adverting is the ability to advert
to the jhana factors one by one after emerging from the jhana, wherever he
wants, whenever he wants, and for as long as he wants. Mastery in attaining
is the ability to enter upon jhana quickly, mastery in resolving the ability
to remain in the jhana for exactly the pre-determined length of time,
mastery in emerging the ability to emerge from jhana quickly without
difficulty, and mastery in reviewing the ability to review the jhana and its
factors with retrospective knowledge immediately after adverting to them.
When the meditator has achieved this fivefold mastery, then he is ready to
strive for the second jhana.
Notes:
[1] Buddhaghosa ascribes the passage he cites in support of the
correspondence to the "Petaka," but it cannot be traced anywhere in the
present Tipitaka, nor in the exegetical work named Petakopadesa.
[2] The other two types of abandoning are by substitution of opposites
(tadangappahana), which means the replacement of unwholesome states by
wholesome ones specifically opposed to them, and abandoning by eradication
(samucchedappahana), the final destruction of defilements by the
supramundane paths. See Vism.693-96;PP.812-16.
[3] Adapted from Nyanaponika Thera, The Five Mental Hindrances and Their
Conquest (Wheel No. 26). This booklet contains a full compilation of texts
on the hindrances.
[4] Ven Nanamoli, in his translation of the Visuddhimagga, renders piti by
"happiness," but this rendering can be misleading since most translators use
"happiness" as a rendering for sukha, the pleasurable feeling present in the
jhana. We will render piti by "rapture," thus maintaining the connection of
the term with ecstatic meditative experience.
[5] Shwe Zan Aung, Compendium of Philosophy (London: Pali Text Society,
1960), p243.
[6] Khuddhikapiti, khanikapiti, okkantikapiti, ubbega piti and pharana piti.
Vism 143-44; PP. 149-51. Dhs.A.158.
[7] Dhs.A.160-61. Translation by Maung Tin, The Expositor (Atthasalini)
(London: Pali Text Society, 1921), i.155-56.
[8] The following is based on Vism. 126-35; PP.132-40
[9] Avajjanavasi, samapajjanavasi, adhitthanavasi, vutthanavasi,
paccavekkhanavasi. For a discussion see Vism. 154-55; PP.160-61. The
canonical source for the five masteries is the Patisambhidamagga, i.100.
Jhana - The Preparation for Jhana
The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation
by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana
Chapter 2
The Preparation for Jhana
The jhanas do not arise out of a void but in dependence on the right
conditions. They come to growth only when provided with the nutriments
conductive to their development. Therefore, prior to beginning meditation,
the aspirant to the jhanas must prepare a groundwork for his practice by
fulfilling certain preliminary requirements. He first must endeavor to
purify his moral virtue, sever the outer impediments to practice, and place
himself under a qualified teacher who will assign him a suitable meditation
subject and explain to him the methods of developing it. After learning
these the disciple must then seek out a congenial dwelling and diligently
strive for success. In this chapter we will examine in order each of the
preparatory steps that have to be fulfilled before commencing to develop
jhana.
The Moral Foundation for Jhana
A disciple aspiring to the jhanas first has to lay a solid foundation of
moral discipline. Moral purity is indispensable to meditative progress for
several deeply psychological reasons. It is needed first, in order to
safeguard against the danger of remorse, the nagging sense of guilt that
arises when the basic principles of morality are ignored or deliberately
violated. Scrupulous conformity to virtuous rules of conduct protects the
mediator from this danger disruptive to inner calm, and brings joy and
happiness when the mediator reflects upon the purity of his conduct (see
A.v,1-7).
A second reason a moral foundation is needed for meditation follows from an
understanding of the purpose of concentration. Concentration, in the
Buddhist discipline, aims at providing a base for wisdom by cleansing the
mind of the dispersive influence of the defilements. But in order for the
concentration exercises to effectively combat the defilements, the coarser
expressions of the latter through bodily and verbal action first have to be
checked. Moral transgressions being invariably motivated by defilements --
by greed, hatred and delusion -- when a person acts in violation of the
precepts of morality he excites and reinforces the very same mental factors
his practice of meditation is intended to eliminate. This involves him in a
crossfire of incompatible aims which renders his attempts at mental
purification ineffective. The only way he can avoid frustration in his
endeavor to purify the mind of its subtler defilements is to prevent the
unwholesome inner impulses from breathing out in the coarser form of
unwholesome bodily and verbal deeds. Only when he establishes control over
the outer expression of the defilements can he turn to deal with them
inwardly as mental obsessions that appear in the process of meditation.
The practice of moral discipline consists negatively in abstinence from
immoral actions of body and speech and positively in the observance of
ethical principles promoting peace within oneself and harmony in one's
relations with others. The basic code of moral discipline taught by the
Buddha for the guidance of his lay followers is the five precepts:
abstinence from taking life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from
false speech, and from intoxicating drugs and drinks. These principles are
bindings as minimal ethical obligations for all practitioners of the
Buddhist path, and within their bounds considerable progress in meditation
can be made. However, those aspiring to reach the higher levels of jhanas
and to pursue the path further to the stages of liberation, are encouraged
to take up the more complete moral discipline pertaining to the life of
renunciation. Early Buddhism is unambiguous in its emphasis on the
limitations of household life for following the path in its fullness and
perfection. Time and again the texts say that the household life is
confining, a "path for the dust of passion," while the life of homelessness
is like open space. Thus a disciple who is fully intent upon making rapid
progress towards Nibbana will when outer conditions allow for it, "shave off
his hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and go forth from the home life
into homelessness" (M.i,179).
The moral training for the bhikkhus or monks has been arranged into a system
called the fourfold purification of morality (catuparisuddhisila).[1] The
first component of this scheme, its backbone, consists in the morality of
restraint according to the Patimokkha, the code of 227 training precepts
promulgated by the Buddha to regulate the conduct of the Sangha or monastic
order. Each of these rules is in some way intended to facilitate control
over the defilements and to induce a mode of living marked by harmlessness,
contentment and simplicity. The second aspect of the monk's moral discipline
is restraint of the senses, by which the monk maintains close watchfulness
over his mind as he engages in sense contacts so that he does not give rise
to desire for pleasurable objects and aversion towards repulsive ones.
Third, the monk is to live by a purified livelihood, obtaining his basic
requisites such as robes food, lodgings and medicines in ways consistent
with his vocation. The fourth factor of the moral training is proper use of
the requisites, which means that the monk should reflect upon the purposes
for which he makes use of his requisites and should employ them only for
maintaining his health and comfort, not for luxury and enjoyment.
After establishing a foundation of purified morality, the aspirant to
meditation is advised to cut off any outer impediments (palibodha) that may
hinder his efforts to lead a contemplative life. These impediments are
numbered as ten: a dwelling, which becomes an impediment for those who allow
their minds to become preoccupied with its upkeep or with its appurtenances;
a family of relatives or supporters with whom the aspirant may become
emotionally involved in ways that hinder his progress; gains, which may bind
the monk by obligation to those who offer them; a class of students who must
be instructed; building work, which demands time and attention; travel; kin,
meaning parents, teachers, pupils or close friends; illness; the study of
scriptures; and supernormal powers, which are an impediment to insight
(Vism.90-97; PP.91-98).
The Good Friend and the Subject of Meditation
The path of practice leading to the jhanas is an arduous course involving
precise techniques and skillfulness is needed in dealing with the pitfalls
that lie along the way. The knowledge of how to attain the jhanas has been
transmitted through a lineage of teachers going back to the time of the
Buddha himself. A prospective meditator is advised to avail himself of the
living heritage of accumulated knowledge and experience by placing himself
under the care of a qualified teacher, described as a "good friend"
(kalyanamitta), one who gives guidance and wise advice rooted in his own
practice and experience. On the basis of either of the power of penetrating
others minds, or by personal observation, or by questioning, the teacher
will size up the temperament of his new pupil and then select a mediation
subject for him appropriate to his temperament.
The various meditation subjects that the Buddha prescribed for the
development of serenity have been collected in the commentaries into a set
called the forty kammatthana. This word means literally a place of work, and
is applied to the subject of meditation as the place where the meditator
undertakes the work of meditation. The forty meditation subjects are
distributed into seven categories, enumerated in the Visuddhimagga as
follows: ten kasinas, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollections, four divine
abidings, four immaterial states, one perception, and one defining.[2]
A kasina is a device representing a particular quality used as a support for
concentration. The ten kasinas are those of earth, water, fire and air; four
color kasinas -- blue, yellow, red and white; the light kasina and the
limited space kasina. The kasina can be either a naturally occurring form of
the element or color chosen, or an artificially produced device such as a
disk that the meditator can use at his convenience in his meditation
quarters.
The ten kinds of foulness are ten stages in the decomposition of a corpse:
the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the
scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested and a
skeleton. The primary purpose of these meditations is to reduce sensual lust
by gaining a clear perception of the repulsiveness of the body.
The ten recollections are the recollections of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the
Sangha, morality, generosity and the deities, mindfulness of death,
mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of breathing, and the recollection of
peace. The first three are devotional contemplations on the sublime
qualities of the "Three Jewels," the primary objects of Buddhist virtues and
on the deities inhabiting the heavenly worlds, intended principally for
those still intent on a higher rebirth. Mindfulness of death is reflection
on the inevitably of death, a constant spur to spiritual exertion.
Mindfulness of the body involves the mental dissection of the body into
thirty-two parts, undertaken with a view to perceiving its unattractiveness.
Mindfulness of breathing is awareness of the in-and-out movement of the
breath, perhaps the most fundamental of all Buddhist meditation subjects.
And the recollection of peace is reflection on the qualities of Nibbana.
The four divine abidings (brahmavihara) are the development of boundless
loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. These
meditations are also called the "immeasurables" (appamanna) because they are
to be developed towards all sentient beings without qualification or
exclusiveness.
The four immaterial states are the base of boundless space, the base of
boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. These are the objects leading to the
corresponding meditative attainments, the immaterial jhanas.
The one perception is the perception of the repulsiveness of food. The one
defining is the defining of the four elements, that is, the analysis of the
physical body into the elemental modes of solidity, fluidity, heat and
oscillation.
The forty meditation subjects are treated in the commentarial texts from two
important angles -- one their ability to induce different levels of
concentration, the other their suitability for differing temperaments. Not
all meditation subjects are equally effective in inducing the deeper levels
of concentration. They are first distinguished on the basis of their
capacity for inducing only access concentration or for inducing full
absorption; those capable of inducing absorption are then distinguished
further according to their ability to induce the different levels of jhana.
Of the forty subjects, ten are capable of leading only to access
concentration: eight recollections -- i.e. all except mindfulness of the
body and mindfulness of breathing -- plus the perception of repulsiveness in
nutriment and the defining of the four elements. These, because they are
occupied with a diversity of qualities and involve and active application of
discursive thought, cannot lead beyond access. The other thirty subjects can
all lead to absorption.
The ten kasinas and mindfulness of breathing, owing to their simplicity and
freedom from thought construction, can lead to all four jhanas. The ten
kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body lead only to the first jhana,
being limited because the mind can only hold onto them with the aid of
applied thought (vitakka) which is absent in the second and higher jhanas.
The first three divine abidings can induce the lower three jhanas but the
fourth, since they arise in association with pleasant feeling, while the
divine abiding of equanimity occurs only at the level of the fourth jhana,
where neutral feeling gains ascendency. The four immaterial states conduce
to the respective immaterial jhanas corresponding to their names.
The forty subjects are also differentiated according to their
appropriateness for different character types. Six main character types are
recognized -- the greedy, the hating, the deluded, the faithful, the
intelligent and the speculative -- this oversimplified typology being taken
only as a pragmatic guideline which in practice admits various shades and
combinations. The ten kind of foulness and mindfulness of the body, clearly
intended to attenuate sensual desire, are suitable for those of greedy
temperament. Eight subjects -- the four divine abidings and four color
kasinas -- are appropriate for the hating temperament. Mindfulness of
breathing is suitable for those of the deluded and the speculative
temperament. The first six recollections are appropriate for the faithful
temperament. Four subjects -- mindfulness of death, the recollection of
peace, the defining of the four elements, and the perception of the
repulsiveness in nutriment -- are especially effective for those of
intelligent temperament. The remaining six kasinas and the immaterial states
are suitable for all kinds of temperaments. But the kasinas should be
limited in size for one of speculative temperament and large in size for one
of deluded temperament.
Immediately after giving this breakdown Buddhaghosa adds a proviso to
prevent misunderstanding. He states that this division by way of temperament
is made on the basis of direct opposition and complete suitability, but
actually there is no wholesome form of meditation that does not suppress the
defilements and strengthen the virtuous mental factors. Thus an individual
mediator may be advised to meditate on foulness to abandon lust, on
loving-kindness to abandon hatred, on breathing to cut off discursive
thought, and on impermanence to eliminate the conceit "I am" (A.iv,358).
Choosing a Suitable Dwelling
The teacher assigns a meditation subject to his pupil appropriate to his
character and explains the methods of developing it. He can teach it
gradually to a pupil who is going to remain in close proximity to him, or in
detail to one who will go to practice it elsewhere. If the disciple is not
going to stay with his teacher he must be careful to select a suitable place
for meditation. The texts mention eighteen kinds of monasteries unfavorable
to the development of jhana: a large monastery, a new one, a dilapidated
one, one near a road, one with a pond, leaves, flowers or fruits, one sought
after by many people, one in cities, among timber of fields, where people
quarrel, in a port, in border lands, on a frontier, a haunted place, and one
without access to a spiritual teacher (Vism. 118-121; PP122-125).
The factors which make a dwelling favorable to meditation are mentioned by
the Buddha himself. If should not be too far from or too near a village that
can be relied on as an alms resort, and should have a clear path: it should
be quiet and secluded; it should be free from rough weather and from harmful
insects and animals; one should be able to obtain one's physical requisites
while dwelling there; and the dwelling should provide ready access to
learned elders and spiritual friends who can be consulted when problems
arise in meditation (A.v,15). The types of dwelling places commended by the
Buddha most frequently in the suttas as conductive to the jhanas are a
secluded dwelling in the forest, at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a
cleft, in a cave, in a cemetery, on a wooded flatland, in the open air, or
on a heap of straw (M.i,181). Having found a suitable dwelling and settled
there, the disciple should maintain scrupulous observance of the rules of
discipline, He should be content with his simple requisites, exercise
control over his sense faculties, be mindful and discerning in all
activities, and practice meditation diligently as he was instructed. It is
at this point that he meets the first great challenge of his contemplative
life, the battle with the five hindrances.
Notes:
[1] A full description of the fourfold purification of morality will be
found in the Visuddhimagga, Chapter 1.
[2] The following discussion is based on Vism.110-115; PP.112-118.
by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana
Chapter 2
The Preparation for Jhana
The jhanas do not arise out of a void but in dependence on the right
conditions. They come to growth only when provided with the nutriments
conductive to their development. Therefore, prior to beginning meditation,
the aspirant to the jhanas must prepare a groundwork for his practice by
fulfilling certain preliminary requirements. He first must endeavor to
purify his moral virtue, sever the outer impediments to practice, and place
himself under a qualified teacher who will assign him a suitable meditation
subject and explain to him the methods of developing it. After learning
these the disciple must then seek out a congenial dwelling and diligently
strive for success. In this chapter we will examine in order each of the
preparatory steps that have to be fulfilled before commencing to develop
jhana.
The Moral Foundation for Jhana
A disciple aspiring to the jhanas first has to lay a solid foundation of
moral discipline. Moral purity is indispensable to meditative progress for
several deeply psychological reasons. It is needed first, in order to
safeguard against the danger of remorse, the nagging sense of guilt that
arises when the basic principles of morality are ignored or deliberately
violated. Scrupulous conformity to virtuous rules of conduct protects the
mediator from this danger disruptive to inner calm, and brings joy and
happiness when the mediator reflects upon the purity of his conduct (see
A.v,1-7).
A second reason a moral foundation is needed for meditation follows from an
understanding of the purpose of concentration. Concentration, in the
Buddhist discipline, aims at providing a base for wisdom by cleansing the
mind of the dispersive influence of the defilements. But in order for the
concentration exercises to effectively combat the defilements, the coarser
expressions of the latter through bodily and verbal action first have to be
checked. Moral transgressions being invariably motivated by defilements --
by greed, hatred and delusion -- when a person acts in violation of the
precepts of morality he excites and reinforces the very same mental factors
his practice of meditation is intended to eliminate. This involves him in a
crossfire of incompatible aims which renders his attempts at mental
purification ineffective. The only way he can avoid frustration in his
endeavor to purify the mind of its subtler defilements is to prevent the
unwholesome inner impulses from breathing out in the coarser form of
unwholesome bodily and verbal deeds. Only when he establishes control over
the outer expression of the defilements can he turn to deal with them
inwardly as mental obsessions that appear in the process of meditation.
The practice of moral discipline consists negatively in abstinence from
immoral actions of body and speech and positively in the observance of
ethical principles promoting peace within oneself and harmony in one's
relations with others. The basic code of moral discipline taught by the
Buddha for the guidance of his lay followers is the five precepts:
abstinence from taking life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from
false speech, and from intoxicating drugs and drinks. These principles are
bindings as minimal ethical obligations for all practitioners of the
Buddhist path, and within their bounds considerable progress in meditation
can be made. However, those aspiring to reach the higher levels of jhanas
and to pursue the path further to the stages of liberation, are encouraged
to take up the more complete moral discipline pertaining to the life of
renunciation. Early Buddhism is unambiguous in its emphasis on the
limitations of household life for following the path in its fullness and
perfection. Time and again the texts say that the household life is
confining, a "path for the dust of passion," while the life of homelessness
is like open space. Thus a disciple who is fully intent upon making rapid
progress towards Nibbana will when outer conditions allow for it, "shave off
his hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and go forth from the home life
into homelessness" (M.i,179).
The moral training for the bhikkhus or monks has been arranged into a system
called the fourfold purification of morality (catuparisuddhisila).[1] The
first component of this scheme, its backbone, consists in the morality of
restraint according to the Patimokkha, the code of 227 training precepts
promulgated by the Buddha to regulate the conduct of the Sangha or monastic
order. Each of these rules is in some way intended to facilitate control
over the defilements and to induce a mode of living marked by harmlessness,
contentment and simplicity. The second aspect of the monk's moral discipline
is restraint of the senses, by which the monk maintains close watchfulness
over his mind as he engages in sense contacts so that he does not give rise
to desire for pleasurable objects and aversion towards repulsive ones.
Third, the monk is to live by a purified livelihood, obtaining his basic
requisites such as robes food, lodgings and medicines in ways consistent
with his vocation. The fourth factor of the moral training is proper use of
the requisites, which means that the monk should reflect upon the purposes
for which he makes use of his requisites and should employ them only for
maintaining his health and comfort, not for luxury and enjoyment.
After establishing a foundation of purified morality, the aspirant to
meditation is advised to cut off any outer impediments (palibodha) that may
hinder his efforts to lead a contemplative life. These impediments are
numbered as ten: a dwelling, which becomes an impediment for those who allow
their minds to become preoccupied with its upkeep or with its appurtenances;
a family of relatives or supporters with whom the aspirant may become
emotionally involved in ways that hinder his progress; gains, which may bind
the monk by obligation to those who offer them; a class of students who must
be instructed; building work, which demands time and attention; travel; kin,
meaning parents, teachers, pupils or close friends; illness; the study of
scriptures; and supernormal powers, which are an impediment to insight
(Vism.90-97; PP.91-98).
The Good Friend and the Subject of Meditation
The path of practice leading to the jhanas is an arduous course involving
precise techniques and skillfulness is needed in dealing with the pitfalls
that lie along the way. The knowledge of how to attain the jhanas has been
transmitted through a lineage of teachers going back to the time of the
Buddha himself. A prospective meditator is advised to avail himself of the
living heritage of accumulated knowledge and experience by placing himself
under the care of a qualified teacher, described as a "good friend"
(kalyanamitta), one who gives guidance and wise advice rooted in his own
practice and experience. On the basis of either of the power of penetrating
others minds, or by personal observation, or by questioning, the teacher
will size up the temperament of his new pupil and then select a mediation
subject for him appropriate to his temperament.
The various meditation subjects that the Buddha prescribed for the
development of serenity have been collected in the commentaries into a set
called the forty kammatthana. This word means literally a place of work, and
is applied to the subject of meditation as the place where the meditator
undertakes the work of meditation. The forty meditation subjects are
distributed into seven categories, enumerated in the Visuddhimagga as
follows: ten kasinas, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollections, four divine
abidings, four immaterial states, one perception, and one defining.[2]
A kasina is a device representing a particular quality used as a support for
concentration. The ten kasinas are those of earth, water, fire and air; four
color kasinas -- blue, yellow, red and white; the light kasina and the
limited space kasina. The kasina can be either a naturally occurring form of
the element or color chosen, or an artificially produced device such as a
disk that the meditator can use at his convenience in his meditation
quarters.
The ten kinds of foulness are ten stages in the decomposition of a corpse:
the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the
scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested and a
skeleton. The primary purpose of these meditations is to reduce sensual lust
by gaining a clear perception of the repulsiveness of the body.
The ten recollections are the recollections of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the
Sangha, morality, generosity and the deities, mindfulness of death,
mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of breathing, and the recollection of
peace. The first three are devotional contemplations on the sublime
qualities of the "Three Jewels," the primary objects of Buddhist virtues and
on the deities inhabiting the heavenly worlds, intended principally for
those still intent on a higher rebirth. Mindfulness of death is reflection
on the inevitably of death, a constant spur to spiritual exertion.
Mindfulness of the body involves the mental dissection of the body into
thirty-two parts, undertaken with a view to perceiving its unattractiveness.
Mindfulness of breathing is awareness of the in-and-out movement of the
breath, perhaps the most fundamental of all Buddhist meditation subjects.
And the recollection of peace is reflection on the qualities of Nibbana.
The four divine abidings (brahmavihara) are the development of boundless
loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. These
meditations are also called the "immeasurables" (appamanna) because they are
to be developed towards all sentient beings without qualification or
exclusiveness.
The four immaterial states are the base of boundless space, the base of
boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. These are the objects leading to the
corresponding meditative attainments, the immaterial jhanas.
The one perception is the perception of the repulsiveness of food. The one
defining is the defining of the four elements, that is, the analysis of the
physical body into the elemental modes of solidity, fluidity, heat and
oscillation.
The forty meditation subjects are treated in the commentarial texts from two
important angles -- one their ability to induce different levels of
concentration, the other their suitability for differing temperaments. Not
all meditation subjects are equally effective in inducing the deeper levels
of concentration. They are first distinguished on the basis of their
capacity for inducing only access concentration or for inducing full
absorption; those capable of inducing absorption are then distinguished
further according to their ability to induce the different levels of jhana.
Of the forty subjects, ten are capable of leading only to access
concentration: eight recollections -- i.e. all except mindfulness of the
body and mindfulness of breathing -- plus the perception of repulsiveness in
nutriment and the defining of the four elements. These, because they are
occupied with a diversity of qualities and involve and active application of
discursive thought, cannot lead beyond access. The other thirty subjects can
all lead to absorption.
The ten kasinas and mindfulness of breathing, owing to their simplicity and
freedom from thought construction, can lead to all four jhanas. The ten
kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body lead only to the first jhana,
being limited because the mind can only hold onto them with the aid of
applied thought (vitakka) which is absent in the second and higher jhanas.
The first three divine abidings can induce the lower three jhanas but the
fourth, since they arise in association with pleasant feeling, while the
divine abiding of equanimity occurs only at the level of the fourth jhana,
where neutral feeling gains ascendency. The four immaterial states conduce
to the respective immaterial jhanas corresponding to their names.
The forty subjects are also differentiated according to their
appropriateness for different character types. Six main character types are
recognized -- the greedy, the hating, the deluded, the faithful, the
intelligent and the speculative -- this oversimplified typology being taken
only as a pragmatic guideline which in practice admits various shades and
combinations. The ten kind of foulness and mindfulness of the body, clearly
intended to attenuate sensual desire, are suitable for those of greedy
temperament. Eight subjects -- the four divine abidings and four color
kasinas -- are appropriate for the hating temperament. Mindfulness of
breathing is suitable for those of the deluded and the speculative
temperament. The first six recollections are appropriate for the faithful
temperament. Four subjects -- mindfulness of death, the recollection of
peace, the defining of the four elements, and the perception of the
repulsiveness in nutriment -- are especially effective for those of
intelligent temperament. The remaining six kasinas and the immaterial states
are suitable for all kinds of temperaments. But the kasinas should be
limited in size for one of speculative temperament and large in size for one
of deluded temperament.
Immediately after giving this breakdown Buddhaghosa adds a proviso to
prevent misunderstanding. He states that this division by way of temperament
is made on the basis of direct opposition and complete suitability, but
actually there is no wholesome form of meditation that does not suppress the
defilements and strengthen the virtuous mental factors. Thus an individual
mediator may be advised to meditate on foulness to abandon lust, on
loving-kindness to abandon hatred, on breathing to cut off discursive
thought, and on impermanence to eliminate the conceit "I am" (A.iv,358).
Choosing a Suitable Dwelling
The teacher assigns a meditation subject to his pupil appropriate to his
character and explains the methods of developing it. He can teach it
gradually to a pupil who is going to remain in close proximity to him, or in
detail to one who will go to practice it elsewhere. If the disciple is not
going to stay with his teacher he must be careful to select a suitable place
for meditation. The texts mention eighteen kinds of monasteries unfavorable
to the development of jhana: a large monastery, a new one, a dilapidated
one, one near a road, one with a pond, leaves, flowers or fruits, one sought
after by many people, one in cities, among timber of fields, where people
quarrel, in a port, in border lands, on a frontier, a haunted place, and one
without access to a spiritual teacher (Vism. 118-121; PP122-125).
The factors which make a dwelling favorable to meditation are mentioned by
the Buddha himself. If should not be too far from or too near a village that
can be relied on as an alms resort, and should have a clear path: it should
be quiet and secluded; it should be free from rough weather and from harmful
insects and animals; one should be able to obtain one's physical requisites
while dwelling there; and the dwelling should provide ready access to
learned elders and spiritual friends who can be consulted when problems
arise in meditation (A.v,15). The types of dwelling places commended by the
Buddha most frequently in the suttas as conductive to the jhanas are a
secluded dwelling in the forest, at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a
cleft, in a cave, in a cemetery, on a wooded flatland, in the open air, or
on a heap of straw (M.i,181). Having found a suitable dwelling and settled
there, the disciple should maintain scrupulous observance of the rules of
discipline, He should be content with his simple requisites, exercise
control over his sense faculties, be mindful and discerning in all
activities, and practice meditation diligently as he was instructed. It is
at this point that he meets the first great challenge of his contemplative
life, the battle with the five hindrances.
Notes:
[1] A full description of the fourfold purification of morality will be
found in the Visuddhimagga, Chapter 1.
[2] The following discussion is based on Vism.110-115; PP.112-118.
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