Visuddhimagga - The Soil of Understanding—Conclusion: Dependent Origination - Brief exposition

THE PATH
OF PURIFICATION
(VISUDDHIMAGGA)
BY
BHADANTACARIYA BUDDHAGHOSA
Translated from the Pali
by
BHIKKHU NANAMOLI
FIFTH EDITION
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
Kandy Sri Lanka


[SECTION B. EXPOSITION]
[I. PREAMBLE]
25. Now in teaching this dependent origination the Blessed One has set
forth the text in the way beginning 'With ignorance as condition there
are formations' (S.ii,20). Its meaning should be commented on by one
who keeps within the circle of the VibhajjavAdins,
5
who does not misrep-
resent the teachers, who does not advertise his own standpoint, who does
not quarrel with the standpoint of others, who does not distort suttas,
who is in agreement with the Vinaya, who looks to the principal authori-
ties (mahapadesa—D.ii,123ff.), who illustrates the law (dhamma), who
takes up the meaning (attha), repeatedly reverting to that same meaning,
describing it in various different ways.
6
And it is inherently difficult to
comment on the dependent origination, as the Ancients said:
'The truth, a being, rebirth-linking,
And the structure of conditions,
Are four things very hard to see
And likewise difficult to teach'.
Therefore, considering that to comment on the dependent origina-
tion is impossible except for those who are expert in the texts:
Whilst I would now begin the comment
On the structure of conditions
I find no footing for support
And seem to founder in a sea. [523]
However, many modes of teaching
Grace the Dispensation here,
And still the former teachers' way
Is handed down unbrokenly.


Therefore on both of these relying
For my support, I now begin
Its meaning to elucidate:
Listen therefore attentively.
26. For this has been said by the former teachers:
'Whoever learns alertly this [discourse]
Will go from excellence to excellence,
And when perfected, he will then escape
Beyond the vision of the King of Death'.
[II. BRIEF EXPOSITION]
27. So as regards the passages that begin: 'With ignorance as condition
there are formations' (S.ii,20), to start with:
(1) As different ways of teaching, (2) meaning,
(3) Character, (4) singlefold and so on,
(5) As to defining of the factors,
The exposition should be known.
28. 1. Herein, as different ways of teaching: the Blessed One's teach-
ing of the dependent origination is fourfold, namely, (i) from the begin-
ning; or (ii) from the middle up to the end; and (iii) from the end; or (iv)
from the middle down to the beginning. It is like four creeper-gatherers'
ways of seizing a creeper.
29. (i) For just as one of four men gathering creepers sees only the root
of the creeper first, and after cutting it at the root, he pulls it all out and
takes it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches the dependent
origination from the beginning up to the end thus: 'So, bhikkhus, with
ignorance as condition there are formations; ... with birth as condition
ageing and-death' (M.i,261).
30. (ii) Just as another of the four men sees the middle of the creeper
first, and after cutting it in the middle, he pulls out only the upper part
and takes it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the
middle up to the end thus: 'When he is delighted with, welcomes, re-
mains committed to that feeling, then delight arises in him. Delight in
feelings is clinging. With his clinging as condition there is becoming;
with becoming as condition, birth' (M.i,266).
31. (iii) Just as another of the four men sees the tip of the creeper first,
and seizing the tip, he follows it down to the root and takes all of it away
and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the end down to the
beginning thus: ' "With birth as condition, ageing-and-death", so it was
said. But is there ageing-and-death with birth as condition, or not, or
how is it here?—There is ageing-and-death with birth as condition, so


we think, venerable sir. [524] "With becoming as condition, birth", so it
was said ... "With ignorance as condition there are formations", so it
was said. But are there formations with ignorance as condition, or not, or
how is it here?—There are formations with ignornace as condition, so
we think, venerable sir* (M.i, 261).
32. (iv) Just as one of the four men sees only the middle of the creeper
first, and after cutting it in the middle and tracing it down as far as the
root, he takes it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the
middle down to the beginning thus: * And these four nutriments, bhikkhus:
what is their source? What is their origin? From what are they born? By
what are they produced? These four nutriments have craving as their
source, craving as their origin, they are born from craving, produced by
craving. Craving: what is its source? ... Feeling: ... Contact: ... The
sixfold base: ... Mentality-materiality: ... Consciousness: ... Formations:
what is their source? ... By what are they produced? Formations have
ignorance as their source ... they are ... produced by ignorance' (S.ii,l If.).
33. Why does he teach it thus? Because the dependent origination is
wholly beneficial and because he has himself acquired elegance in in-
structing. For the dependent origination is entirely beneficial: starting
from any one of the four starting points, it leads only to the penetration
of the proper way. And the Blessed One has acquired elegance in in-
structing: it is because he has done so through possession of the four
kinds of perfect confidence and the four discriminations and by achiev-
ing the fourfold profundity (§304) that he teaches the Dhamma by vari-
ous methods.
34. But it should be recognized, in particular, that (i) when he sees that
people susceptible of teaching are confused about the analysis of the
causes of the process [of becoming], he employs his teaching of it for-
wards starting from the beginning in order to show that the process
carries on according to its own peculiar laws and for the purpose of
showing the order of arising, (iii) And it should be recognized that when
he surveys the world as fallen upon trouble in the way stated thus, 'This
world has fallen upon trouble; it is born, ages, dies, passes away, and
reappears' (S.ii,10), he employs his teaching of it backwards starting
from the end in order to show the [laws governing the] various kinds of
suffering beginning with ageing and death, which he discovered himself
in the early stage of his penetration. And (iv) it should be recognized that
he employs his teaching of it backwards from the middle down to the
beginning in order to show how the succession of cause and fruit extends
back into the past [existence], and again forwards from the past, in
accordance with his definition of nutriment as the source [of ignorance]
(see M.i,47f.). And (ii) it should be recognized that he employs his


teaching of it forwards from the middle up to the end in order to show
how the future [existence] follows on [through rebirth] from arousing in
the present causes for [rebirth] in the future.
35. Of these methods of presentation, that cited here should be under-
stood to be that stated in forward order starting from the beginning in
order to show to people susceptible of teaching who are confused about
the laws of the process [of becoming] that the process carries on accord-
ing to its own peculiar laws, [525] and for the purpose of showing the
order of arising.
36. But why is ignorance stated as the beginning here? How then, is
ignorance the causeless root-cause of the world like the Primordial
Essence of those who assert the existence of a Primordial Essence? It is
not causeless. For a cause of ignorance is stated thus, 'With the arising
of cankers there is the arising of ignorance' (M.i,54). But there is a figu-
rative way in which it can be treated as the root cause. What way is that?
When it is made to serve as a starting point in an exposition of the round
[of becoming].
37. For the Blessed One gives the exposition of the round with one of
two things as the starting point: either ignorance, according as it is said,
'No first beginning of ignorance is made known, bhikkhus, before which
there was no ignorance, and after which there came to be ignorance. And
while it is said thus, bhikkhus, nevertheless it is made known that igno-
rance has its specific condition' (A.v,113); or craving for becoming,
according as it is said, 'No first beginning of craving for becoming is
made known, bhikkhus, before which there was no craving for becom-
ing, and after which there came to be craving for becoming. And while it
is said thus, bhikkhus, nevertheless it is made known that craving for
becoming has its specific condition' (A.v,116).
38. But why does the Blessed One give the exposition of the round with
those two things as starting points? Because they are the outstanding
causes of kamma that leads to happy and unhappy destinies.
39. Ignorance is an outstanding cause of kamma that leads to unhappy
destinies. Why? Because, just as when a cow to be slaughtered is in the
grip of the torment of burning with fire and belabouring with cudgels,
and being crazed with torment, she drinks the hot water although it gives
no satisfaction and does her harm, so the ordinary man who is in the grip
of ignorance performs kamma of the various kinds beginning with kill-
ing living things that leads to unhappy destinies, although it gives no
satisfaction because of the burning of defilements and does him harm
because it casts him into an unhappy destiny.
40. But craving for becoming is an outstanding cause of kamma that
leads to happy destinies. Why? Because, just as that same cow, through


her craving for cold water, starts drinking cold water, which gives satis-
faction and allays her torment, so the ordinary man in the grip of craving
for becoming performs kamma of the various kinds beginning with ab-
stention from killing living things that leads to happy destinies and gives
satisfaction because it is free from the burning of defilements and, by
bringing him to a happy destiny, allays the torment of suffering [experi-
enced] in the unhappy destinies.
41. Now as regards these two states that are starting points in exposi-
tions of the process [of becoming], in some instances the Blessed One
teaches the Dhamma based on a single one of these states, for instance,
[526] 'Accordingly, bhikkhus, formations have ignorance as their cause,
consciousness has formations as its cause' (S.ii,31), etc.; likewise,
'Bhikkhus, craving increases in one who dwells seeing enjoyment in
things productive of clinging; with craving as condition there is clinging'
(S.ii,84), and so on. In some instances he does so based on both, for
instance: 'So, bhikkhus, for the fool who is hindered by ignorance and
tethered by craving there arises this body. Now this body [with its six
internal bases] and externally [the six bases due to] mentality-materiality
make a duality. Due to this duality there is contact, as well as the six
[pairs of] bases, touched through which the fool feels pleasure and pain'
(S.ii,23-24), and so on.
42. Of these ways of presentation, that cited here in the form 'With
ignorance as condition there are formations' should be understood as one
based on a single state. This, firstly, is how the exposition should be
known 'as to different ways of teaching'.
43. 2. As to meaning: as to the meaning of the words 'ignorance' and
so on. Bodily misconduct, etc., for example, 'ought not to be found'
(avindiya), in the sense of being unfit to be carried out; the meaning is
that it should not be permitted. It finds (vindati) what ought not to be
found (avindiya), thus it is ignorance (avijja). Conversely, good bodily
conduct, etc. 'ought to be found' (vindiya). It does not find (na vindati)
what ought to be found (vindiya), thus it is ignorance (avijja). Also it
prevents knowing (avidita) the meaning of collection in the aggregates,
the meaning of actuating in the bases, the meaning of voidness in the
elements, the meaning of predominance in the faculties, the meaning of
reality in the truths, thus it is ignorance (avijja). Also it prevents know-
ing the meaning of suffering, etc., described in four ways as 'oppres-
sion', etc. (Ch. XVI, §15), thus it is ignorance. Through all the kinds of
generations, destinies, becoming, stations of consciousness, and abodes
of beings in the endless round of rebirths it drives beings on (Anta-
VIrahite samsare ... satte JAvapeti), thus it is ignorance (avijja). Amongst
women, men, etc., which are in the ultimate sense non-existent, it hurries


on (paramatthato AVIJjamanesu itthi-purisadisu JAvati), and amongst
the aggregates, etc., which are existent, it does not hurry on (vijjamanseu
pi khandhadisu na javati), thus it is ignorance (avijja). Furthermore, it is
ignorance because it conceals the physical bases and objects of eye-
consciousness, etc., and the dependent origination and dependently-
originated states.
44. That due to (paticca) which fruit comes (eti) is a condition (pac-
cayd). 'Due to' (paticca) = 'not without that'; the meaning is, not dis-
pensing with it. 'Comes' (eti) means both 'arises' and 'occurs'. Further-
more, the meaning of 'condition' is the meaning of 'help'. It is ignorance
and that is a condition, thus it is 'ignorance as condition', whence the
phrase 'with ignorance as condition*.
'They form the formed' (S.iii,87), thus they are formations. Further-
more, formations are twofold, namely, (a) formations with ignorance as
condition, and (b) formations given in the texts with the word 'forma-
tions' (sahkhdra). Herein, (a) the three, namely, formations of merit, of
demerit, and of the imperturbable, and the three, namely, the bodily, the
verbal, and the mental formations, which make six, are 'formations with
ignorance as condition'. And all these are simply mundane profitable
and unprofitable volition.
45. But (b) these four, namely, (i) the formation consisting of the
formed (sankhata-sankhara), [527] (ii) the formation consisting of the
kamma-formed (abhisankhata-sahkhara), (in) the formation consisting
in the act of kamma-forming (forming by kamma—abhisankharana-
sankhara), and (iv) the formation consisting in momentum (payog-
abhisankhara), are the kinds of formations that have come in the texts
with the word 'formations'.
46. Herein, (i) all states with conditions, given in such passages as 'For-
mations are impermanent' (S.i,158; D.ii,157), arc formations consisting
of the formed, (ii) In the Commentaries material and immaterial states of
the three planes generated by kamma are called formations consisting of
the kamma-formed. These are also included in the passage 'Formations
are impermanent'. But there is no instance in the texts where they are
found separately, (iii) Profitable and unprofitable volition of the three
planes is called the formation consisting in the act of kamma-forming. It
is found in the texts in such passages as 'Bhikkhus, this man in his
ignorance forms the formation of merit' (S.ii,82). (iv) But it is bodily
and mental energy that is called the formation consisting in momentum.
This is given in the texts in such passages as 'The wheel, having gone as
far as the impetus (abhisankhara) carried it, stood as though it were
fixed'(A.i,112).
47. And not only these, but many other kinds of formations are given in


the texts with the word * formation' (sankhara), in the way beginning,
'When a bhikkhu is attaining the cessation of perception and feeling,
friend VisAkha, first his verbal formation ceases, then his bodily forma-
tion, then his mental formation' (M.i,302). But there is no formation
among them not included by (i) 'formations consisting of the formed'.
48. What is said next after this in the [rest of the exposition] beginning
'With formations as condition, consciousness' should be understood in
the way already stated. But as to those words not yet dealt with: It
cognizes (vijanati), thus it is consciousness (vinnana—see M.i,292). It
bends [towards an object] (namati), thus it is mentality (nama). It is
molested (ruppati), thus it is materiality (rupa—see S.iii,87). It provides
a range for the origins {dye tanoti) and it leads on what is actuated
(ayatan ca nayati), thus it is a base (ayatana—see Ch. XV, §4). It touches
(phusati), thus it is contact {phassa). It is felt (vedayati), thus it is feeling
(vedana—see M.i,293). It frets (or it thirsts—paritassati), thus it is crav-
ing (tanha). It clings (upadiyati), thus it is clinging (upadana). It be-
comes (bhavati) and it makes become (bhavayati), thus it is becoming
(bhava). The act of being born is birth. The act of growing old is ageing.
By means of it they die, thus it is death. The act of sorrowing is sorrow.
The act of lamenting is lamentation. It makes [beings] suffer (dukkhayati),
thus it is pain (dukkha); or it consumes in two ways (DVedha KHAnati—
see Ch. IV, §100) by means of [the two moments (khana)] arising and
presence, thus it is pain (dukkha). The state of a sad mind (dummana-
bhava) is grief (domanassa). Great misery (bhuso ayaso) is despair
(upayasa). There is means 'is generated'.
49. And the words 'There is' should be construed with all the terms, not
only with those beginning with sorrow; for otherwise, when 'With igno-
rance as condition, formations' was said, it would not be evident what
they did, but by construing it with the words 'There is* (or 'there are'),
since 'ignorance as condition' stands for 'it is ignorance and that is a
condition', consequently [528] the defining of the condition and the
conditionally-arisen state is effected by the words 'with ignorance as
condition there are formations'. And so in each instance.
50. Thus signifies the process described. By that he shows that it is with
ignorance, etc., as the causes and not with creation by an Overlord, and
so on. Of that: of that aforesaid. Whole: unmixed, entire. Mass of suffer-
ing: totality of suffering; not a living being, not pleasure, beauty, and so
on. Arising: generating. There is: is brought about.
This is how the exposition should be known here 'as to meaning'.
51. 3. As to character, etc.: as to the characteristics of ignorance, etc.,
that is to say, ignorance has the characteristic of unknowing. Its function
is to confuse. It is manifested as concealing. Its proximate cause is


cankers. Formations have the characteristic of forming. Their function is
to accumulate.
7
They are manifested as volition. Their proximate cause
is ignorance. Consciousness has the characteristic of cognizing. Its func-
tion is to go before (see Dh.l). It manifests itself as rebirth-linking. Its
proximate cause is formations; or its proximate cause is the physical-
basis-cum-object. Mentality (nama) has the characteristic of bending
(namana). Its function is to associate. It is manifested as inseparability
of its components, [that is, the three aggregates]. Its proximate cause
is consciousness. Materiality {rupa) has the characteristic of being
molested (ruppana). Its function is to be dispersed. It is manifested as
[morally] indeterminate. Its proximate cause is consciousness. The sixfold
base (salayatana) has the characteristic of actuating (ayatana\ Its func-
tion is to see, and so on. It is manifested as the state of physical basis and
door. Its proximate cause is mentality-materiality. Contact has the char-
acteristic of touching. Its function is impingement. It manifests itself as
coincidence [of internal and external base and consciousness]. Its proxi-
mate cause is the sixfold base. Feeling has the characteristic of experi-
encing. Its function is to exploit the stimulus of the objective field. It is
manifested as pleasure and pain. Its proximate cause is contact. Craving
has the characteristic of being a cause [that is, of suffering]. Its function
is to delight. It is manifested as insatiability. Its proximate cause is
feeling. Clinging has the characteristic of seizing. Its function is not to
release. It is manifested as a strong form of craving and as [false] view.
Its proximate cause is craving. Becoming has the characteristic of being
kamma and kamma-result. Its function is to make become and to be-
come. It is manifested as profitable, unprofitable, and indeterminate. Its
proximate cause is clinging. The characteristic of birth, etc., should be
understood as stated in the Description of the Truths (Ch. XVI, §32f.).
This is how the exposition should be known here 'as to character, etc.'.
52. 4. As to singlefold, and so on: here ignorance is singlefold as un-
knowing, unseeing, delusion, and so on. It is twofold as 'no theory' and
'wrong theory' (cf. §303);
8
likewise as prompted and unprompted. It is
threefold as associated with the three kinds of feeling. It is fourfold as
non-penetration of the four truths. It is fivefold as concealing the danger
in the five kinds of destinies. [529] It should, however, be understood
that all the immaterial factors [of the dependent origination] have a
sixfold nature with respect to the [six] doors and objects.
53. Formations are singlefold as states subject to cankers (Dhs., p.3),
states with the nature of result (Dhs., p.l), and so on (cf. Vbh. 62).
9
They
are twofold as profitable and unprofitable; likewise as limited and ex-
alted, inferior and medium, with certainty of wrongness and without
certainty. They are threefold as the formation of merit and the rest. They


are fourfold as leading to the four kinds of generation. They are fivefold
as leading to the five kinds of destiny.
54. Consciousness is singlefold as mundane (Dhs., p.3), resultant (Dhs.,
p.l), and so on. It is twofold as with root-cause and without root-cause
and so on. It is threefold as included in the three kinds of becoming; as
associated with the three kinds of feeling; and as having no root-cause,
having two root-causes, and having three root-causes. It is fourfold and
fivefold [respectively] according to generation and destiny.
55. Mentality-materiality is singlefold as dependent on consciousness,
and as having kamma as its condition. It is twofold as having an object
[in the case of mentality], and having no object [in the case of material-
ity]. It is threefold as past, and so on. It is fourfold and fivefold respec-
tively according to generation and destiny.
56. The sixfold base is singlefold as the place of origin and meeting. It is
twofold as sensitivity of primary elements and as consciousness [of the
sixth base], and so on. It is threefold as having for its domain [objective
fields that are] contiguous, non-contiguous, and neither (see Ch. XIV,
§46). It is fourfold and fivefold respectively as included in the kinds of
generation and destiny.
The singlefoldness, etc., of contact, etc., should be understood in
this way too.
This is how the exposition should be known here 'as to singlefold
and so on'.
57. 5. As to defining of the factors: sorrow, etc., are stated here for the
purpose of showing that the Wheel of Becoming never halts; for they are
produced in the fool who is afflicted by ageing and death, according as it
is said: 'The untaught ordinary man, bhikkhus, on being touched by
painful bodily feeling, sorrows, grieves and laments, beating his breast,
he weeps and becomes distraught' (M.iii,285; S.iv,206). And as long as
these go on occurring so long does ignorance, and so the Wheel of
Becoming renews [its revolution]: 'With ignorance as condition there are
formations' and so on. That is why the factors of the dependent origina-
tion should be understood as twelve by taking those [that is, sorrow,
etc.,] along with ageing-and-death as one summarization. This is how the
exposition should be known here 'as to defining of the factors'.
58. This, firstly, is the brief treatment. The following method, however,
is in detail.