A BUDDHIST MANUAL
Psychological Ethics,
FROM THE PALI
OF THE
DHAMMA-SANGANI
Translated by CAROLINE A. F. RHYS DAVIDS, M.A.
[BOOK III.
THE DIVISION ENTITLED '
ELIMINATION
(nikkhepa-kandam).^
PART I
Chapter I.
The Group of Triplets (tikam) .]
[981] Which are the states that are good ?
The three roots of good (karma),^ to wit, absence of lust,
absence of hate, absence of dulness; the skandhas of
^ Or rejection. According to the Cy. (344, 345), the various
classes into which the states of the moral consciousness
were distinguished (dhamma-vibhago) are now to be set
forth by a method which, in its greater conciseness, is a
rejection or discarding of the relatively more detailed
exposition (vitthara-desanam) of Book I. 'Any in-
telligent person can recognise,' for instance, that in the
concise terms in which the answer to question [984] is
couched, the answer to question [1], among others, is
involved. Eelatively to the following Atthakatha, on the
other hand (§ 1368 to end in the printed text), this method
is in its turn less concise, more detailed.
^ By *
root ' is meant '
cause, condition, bringing to pass,
generating, originating, producing.' And '
since there is
no such thing as good detached from a root,' all good is
hereby included. Asl. 344.
feeling, perception, syntheses and intellect when they are
associated with those three roots ; whatever action, bodily,
vocal and mental,^ springs from those three roots.
[982] Which are the states that are bad ?
The three roots of bad (karma), to wit, lust, hate,
dulness ; the Corruptions that are united with them f the
skandhas of feeling, perception, syntheses and intellect
when these are associated with them ; whatever action,
bodily, vocal and mental, springs from them.
[983] Which are the states that are indeterminate ?
The results of good and bad states taking effect in
the worlds of sense, form, or the formless, or in the [life
that is] Unincluded f the skandhas of feeling, perception,
syntheses and intellect/ those states, moreover, known as
kiriya-thoughts,^ which are neither good, nor bad, nor
the results of karma ; lastly, all form and uncompounded
element.^
[984] Which are the states that are associated with a
feeling of ease ?
The skandhas of perception, syntheses and intellect^ (the
^ Man okammam, inadvertently omitted in the printed
text. Cf, § 982 and passim.
2 Tad-ekattha ca kilesa. Ekattham is defined
(Asl. 345) as located in one and the same thought by virtue
of a common origin, or in one and the same person, by
virtue of a common exclusion, to wit here, of corrupt or
faulty states. On kilesa, see § 1229 et seq,
^ Apariyapanna. See below, § 992, also § 583.
^ To save much repetition throughout this division,
these four skandhas are henceforward referred to as 'the
four skandhas.'
^ Dhamma kiriya. Cf. § 566 et seq.
^ In the printed text sankhata should be asankhata.
^ The skandha of feeling is in this case the predominating
factor, and not reckoned as merely an associate, or sub-
ordinate adjunct in consciousness. (Tarn should be inserted
before sampayutto in the text.)
feeling itself being excepted) are the states associated [with
the consciousness arising] in an ease-yielding soil,^ whether
it belong to the worlds of sense or of form, or to the life
that is Unincluded.
[985] Which are the states that are associated with
distressful feeling ?
The skandhas of perception, syntheses and intellect (the
feeling itself being excepted) are the states associated [with
the consciousness arising] in a distressful soil belonging to
the sensuous universe.
[986] Which are the states that are associated with
feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant ?
The skandhas of perception, syntheses and intellect (the
feeling itself being excepted) are the states associated [with
the consciousness arising] in a neutral soil, whether it
belong to the worlds of sense, form, or the formless, or to
the life that is Unincluded.
[987] Which are the states that are results ?
The results of good and bad states which take effect in
the worlds of sense, form and the formless, and in the life
that is Unincluded ; [in other words] the four skandhas.^
^ Sukha-bhumiyam. I have kept to the more literal
rendering of bhumi here, in preference to some such term
as '
stage '
(as in § 277 et seq.) or *
source,' because of
the analogy drawn by the Cy. (p. 346) :
—just as by saying
'
This is a sugar-soil ' or *
a rice-land '
we mean localities
where these products thrive, so by sukha-bhumi, etc.,
we mean a thought (or state of mind, cittam), which is the
place (or occasion, than am) for the uprising of ease (or
happiness).
2 K. invariably places a colon before that enumeration of
four or more skandhas which is part of the usual procedure
in these triplets. There is nothing explicit in the Cy. to
justify my interpretation by the parenthesis '
in other words '
of the somewhat amorphous construction of the answers
thus punctuated. But I gather from its remarks that, in
these concentrated replies, the skandha-list represents the
preceding half of the answer, in which it occurs, under
[988] Which are the states that involve resultant states ?^
Good and bad states belonging to the worlds of sense,
form and the formless, or to the life that is Unincluded ;
[in other words] the four skandhas.
[989] Which are the states that neither are results, nor
have the quality of involving resultant states ?
Those states concerning action which are neither good,
nor bad, nor the results of karma ; all form, moreover,
and uncompounded element.
[990] Which are the states that are both the issue of
grasping and favourable to it 2^
The co-Intoxicant^ results of good and bad states taking
effect in the worlds of sense, form or the formless ; in
other words, the four skandhas ; such form, moreover, as
is due to karma having been wrought.
[991] Which are the states that are not the issue of
grasping but are favourable to grasping ?
Good and bad co-Intoxicant states taking effect in the
worlds of sense, form, or the formless ; in other words, the
four skandhas; those states, moreover, known as kiriya-
thoughts, which are neither good, nor bad, nor the results
of karma ; as well as such form as is not due to karma
having been wrought.
[992] Which are the states that are neither the issue of
grasping nor favourable to it ?
another aspect, viz., rasatthena, or that of groups in con-
sciousness. This is really the method followed in detail
throughout Book I., but here in mere outline : first a reply
in terms of dh am ma, then the Summary, which is mainly,
at least, in terms of skandha. Cf., e.g., §§ 431-441, 441a,
442. Also Asl. 152.
^ Vipakadhamma-dhamma, paraphrased (Asl. 42)
by vipaka-sabhava-dhamma, states having a result-
nature, or quality of result. See above, p. 164.
2 See § 653 et seq.
^ Sasava. See § 1096 et seq.
The Paths that are the Unincluded/ and the Fruits of
the Paths,^ and uncompounded element.
[993] Which are the states that are corrupt and
baneful ?^
The three roots of bad (karma), to wit, lust, hate,
dulness ; the Corruptions that are united with them ; the
four skandhas when these are associated with them ; what-
ever action, bodily, vocal and mental, springs from them.
[994] Which are the states that are not corrupt but
baneful ?
Good and indeterminate co-Intoxicant states taking effect
in the worlds of sense, form and the formless ; in other
words, thejlve^ skandhas.
^ See p. 165, note 2. The term apariyapanna, when
applied to dhamma and used in an ethico-psychological
sense, is described as here in terms of path, fruit and un-
compounded element. See § 1287. Its positive correlate
is paraphrased, in Asl. 50, by * contained in the threefold
cycle of existence '
(i.e., the worlds of sense, form, etc.). I
do not know whether apariyapannam with this lofty
significance occurs in either of the older Pitakas. But it
appears in K. Y. 507, where it is declared a heresy to hold
that any mere speculative opinion was of the Unincluded,
and where the content of the latter concept is more amply
set forth than in our manual.
2 Eead ca after maggaphalani. The commentator
vindicates the status of the arahat, here alluded to, as
being free from all *
grasping ' as follows : Although the
skandhas (the temporary being) of the arahat may become
a cause of grasping to those who say. Our mother's brother,
the Thera ! Our father's brother, the Thera ! yet there is
no grasping, no infection, attaching to the Paths, the Fruits
and Nirvana. For just as there is no inducement to
mosquitoes to alight on a ball of iron which has been
heated all day, so these Things, by their excessive glory,
do not attract the grasp of craving, pride or false opinion.
2 Or corrupting. See § 1229 (note) et seq.
* Beginning with the skandha of material form.
[995] Which are the states that are neither corrupt nor
baneful ?
The Paths that are the Unincluded, and the Fruits of
the Paths and uncompounded element.
[996] Which are the states * wherein conception works
and thought discursive ' ?^
The four skandhas (conception and discursive thought
excluded) 2 which are associated^ [with the consciousness
arising] in a soil favourable to the working of conception
and of discursive thought, whether it belong to the world
of sense or of form, or to the life that is Unincluded.
[997] Which are the states * wherein is no working of
conception but only of thought discursive ' ?*
The four skandhas (discursive thought excluded) which
are associated [with the consciousness arising] in a soil
favourable to the working, not of conception, but only of
discursive thought, whether it belong to the world of form,
or to the life that is Unincluded.
[998] Which are the states that are *
void of the working
of conception and of thought discursive'?^
The four skandhas which are associated [with the con-
sciousness arising] in a soil void of conception and dis-
cursive thought, whether it belong to the world of sense,
form, or the formless, or to the life that is Unincluded ; all
form, moreover, and uncompounded element.
1 See § 160. Part of the formula for the First Jhana.
The world, universe, or heaven of the Formless is omitted,
being a '
soil ' where these mental processes could not grow.
See §§265-268.
2 They would el^e come under the skandha of syntheses.
See § 62, and p. 251, n. 7.
^ Bead tarn before sampayutto.
* See § 168—a phrase borrowed from the '
System of
Fivefold Jhana.'
s
See § 162 et seq.
[999] Which are the states that are accompanied by joy?
The four skandhas (joy being excluded) which are asso-
ciated [with the consciousness arising] in a soil yielding joy,
whether it belong to the worlds of sense or form, or to the
life that is Unincluded.
[1000] Wiiich are the states that are accompanied by
ease?
The skandhas of^ perception, syntheses and intellect
(ease being excluded) which are associated [with the con-
sciousness arising] in an ease-yielding soil, whether it
belong to the worlds of sense or form, or to the life that is
Unincluded.
[1001] "Which are the states that are accompanied by
disinterestedness ?
The skandhas of perception, syntheses and intellect (dis-
interestedness being excluded) which are associated [with
the consciousness arising] in a soil favourable to dis-
interestedness, whether it belong to the worlds of form or
the formless, or to the life that is Unincluded.
[1002] Which are the states that are to be put away by
insight ?2
^ *
Joy ' is not counted as a mode of feeling, but as a
'
synthesis ' (see p. 11, note 4) ;
*
ease,' however, and '
dis-
interestedness '
being two of the three modes of feeling,
this skandha ceases to be merely an associated state.
^ Dassanam, lit., seeing or vision. In view of what
can and can not be put away by * insight,' it must be
remembered that the term is here used in the technical
sense it possesses for Buddhist ethics, and means the
mental awakening, or intellectual conversion, by which one
became a sotapatti and entered the First Path—and no
more. Asl. 356, 357 ; 43. It was the vehicle for breaking
the three Fetters named here, and numbered as 4th. 5th and
6th in the list of ten named later (§§ 1113, 1123, note). It
represented a certain vantage-point for mind and heart,
from which the Promised Land of Nirvana was caught sight
of, and the fact of impermanence first discerned (see the
standard passage on this and nana-dassanam, D. i. 76),
The three Fetters,^ to wit, the theory of individuality,
perplexity, and the contagion of mere rule and ritual.
In this connexion
[1003] What is the *
theory of individuality ' ?^
as well as the futility of Substantialist theories, and the
impotence of a religion of rules and works. Confidence
in the new methods sprang up with the wider vision.
Dassanam was powerless to remove the cosmic processes
of life and mind: the collocations of phenomena, the
evolution of karma, the infinite mystery of the extra-
sensuous (see § 1008 and note). On various ways of attain-
ing this insight, see the interesting Kimsuka Sutta, S. iv. 191.
Relatively to the higher standpoints to be gained it might
rather, says Buddhaghosa, be called no-vision. For even
as a man, bound on some mission to a king, if he saw the
latter pass afar off on his elephant, would say, if questioned,
that he had not seen him, he not having accomplished his
mission, so the convert, though he have caught his first
glimpse of Nirvana, yet because of all he has to do in the
getting rid of evil, is said to have no vision. His knowledge
consists in a contemplation of the Path.
^ On the Fetters, see § 1113 et seq.
^ Sakkaya-ditthi, embodying one of the most dangerous
of all delusions from the Buddhist point of view, is by the
Cy. (p. 348) connected with kayo, the phenomenal com-
pound of five skandhas, and either with sat, in the sense
of (noumenal) being, or with say am, one's own. Cf. S. N.,
verses 950, 951 ; Dhp., verse 367. The latter explanation
—svakaya—is probably correct (vide E. Miiller, * Pali
Grammar,' p. 19). '
Individuality,' then, stands for this
skandha-complex, which we should now speak of as '
body
and soul ' (or mind) . Both term and theory are discussed
by Dhammadinna in M. i. 299 et seq, (See an article by the
writer in J. E. A. S., 1894, p. 324.) The fourth Upadana,
or *
Grasping after a theory of soul,' is described in identical
terms. See § 1217.
Ditthi, which is here rendered by *
theory,' and which
might with equal propriety be translated by * speculation
'
or '
views '
—all four terms having a common etymological
basis in the notion of seeing, or things seen—is in the
answer rendered by '
opinion,' as fitting better that ' muss
of notions current among the mass of men ' which in the
When in this world^ the ignorant,^ average^ man who
perceives not the Noble Ones,^ who comprehends not, nor
case of the puthujjano does service for organized know-
ledge. Gotama might possibly have approved the Platonic
description of So^a as '
something more dusky than know-
ledge, more luminous than ignorance.' To translate by
*
heresy ' or *
delusion '
has the disadvantage of necessitating
the use of other terms in the case of sound ditthi, such
as that described, in M. P. S., Bh. I., as ditthi ariya
niyyanika. Cf. below, § 1366.
1 Idha, a term, as the Cy. says, either of localization,
or of instance in giving instruction ; here used in the
former sense, and meaning occurrence in the world.
Asl. 348.
2 Assutava, lit., one who has not heard, i.e., not been
taught, who through lack of investigation, inquiry, acquir-
ing, in such matters as skandhas, elements, spheres, con-
ditions, constituents, meditations, is without proper tradi-
tion and attainment. Ibid.
^ Puthujjano, the common worldling. The Cy. cites
verses distinguishing Vliomme sensuel moyen as either blind
or amiable ; of these the former is here meant. In another
quotation (also as yet unverified) he is described as given
to various common vices, governed by the individuality-
theory, hanging on the lips of various ordinary preachers,
immersed in every kind of re-birth ; complicating life with
various common complexities ; carried away by divers
vulgar currents ; appeased or feverish with various low
sources of gratification or of irritation ; steeped in, greedy
of, entangled in, infatuated with, involved in, sticking to,
held fast and hampered by, the five low pleasures of sense
;
veiled, muffled, shrouded in, closed and cloaked and
covered up by, the five low hindrances (§ 1152 c^ seq) ; as
absorbed among the countless folk in the past of low
character and conduct opposed to noble doctrine ; or,
finally, as one separate and distinct from those noble folk
who are given to virtue and learning.
* Ariyanamadassavi, referring either to the Buddhas,
the Pacceka-buddhas and the disciples of the Buddhas, or
to the Buddhas only. Buddhaghosa points out at some
length that the inability to perceive, lit., see, holy persons
is no mere visual shortcoming, but a lack of insight or of
intelligent inference. The truly noble, as such, seen with
is trained according to^ the doctrine of the Noble Ones,
who perceives not good men,^ who comprehends not, nor
is trained according to, the doctrine of good men, regards
(1) the self as bodily form, or (2) as having bodily form, or
regards (3) bodily form as being in the self, or (4) the self
as being in bodily form f or regards (5) the self as feeling,
or (6) as having feeling, or regards (7) feeling as being in
the self, or (8) the self as being in feeling; or regards
(9) the self as perception, or (10) as having perception, or
regards (11) perception as being in the self, or (12) the self
as being in perception; or regards (13) the self as syntheses,
or (14) as having syntheses, or regards (15) syntheses as
being in the self, or (16) the self as being in syntheses ; or
regards (17) the self as intellect, or (18) as having intellect,
or regards (19) intellect as being in the self, or (20) the self
as being in intellect—then this kind of opinion, this walking
in opinion, this jungle of opinion, wilderness of opinion.
the bodily, or with the *
divine ' eye, are not really seen.
Their appearance (van no) is apprehended, but not the
area of their noble nature, even as dogs and jackals, etc.,
see them and know them not. Even the personal attendant
of a Thera may not discern the hero in his master, so hard
is it without insight and understanding to discern the
standpoint attained by the saints, or the conditions of true
nobility. *
What is to thee this vile body that thou seest,
Vakkali ? He who seeth the Doctrine, he it is who seeth
Mel' S. iii., p. 120; Asl. 350.
^ AvinitOc The Cy. enumerates, with examples, the
five modes of the discipline (vinaya) of self-control, and
of that of renunciation. These are given in Childers, s.v.
vinayo.
^ Sappurisa, meaning Pacceka-buddhas and the disciples
of the Buddhas. (Asl. 349.)
^ These four *
views ' respecting the relation of each
skandha to a conceivable central entity or atta are dis-
cussed in my Introduction. All, according to the Cy.
(p. 354), are obstacles to the Paths, though not to heaven
(maggavarana na saggavarana), and are overcome
during progress through the First Path.
puppet-show of opinion, scuffling of opinion, this Fetter of
opinion, the grip and tenacity of it, the inclination towards
it, the being infected by it, this by-path, wrong road,
wrongness, this *fording-place,' this shiftiness of grasp
—
this is called the theory of individuality.
[1004] What is '
perplexity '
'?
To doubt, to be perplexed about, (1) the Master, to
doubt, to be perplexed about, (2) the Doctrine, to doubt, to
be perplexed about, (3) the Order, about (4) the Discipline,
about (5) the past, the future, about both the past and the
future, (6) as to whether there be an assignable cause^ of
states causally determined—it is this kind of doubt, this
working of doubt, this dubiety, puzzlement, perplexity,
distraction, standing at cross-roads ; collapse, uncertainty
of grasp ; evasion, hesitation, incapacity of grasping
thoroughly, stiffness of mind, mental scarifying, that is
called perplexity.^
[1005] "What is the contagion of mere rule and ritual ?
The theory, held by recluses and Brahmins outside our
doctrine,^ that purification is got by rules of moral conduct,
that purification is got by rites, that purification is got by
rules of moral conduct and by rites*—this kind of opinion,
^ Ida-paccayata.
^ See § 425. The specific forma of doubt are thus com-
mented on (Asl. 354, 355) : (1) As to whether or no the
Teacher has the 32 major bodily marks, or the 80 minor
bodily marks of a Buddha, or the requisite omniscience
with respect to things past, future and present ; (2) as to
the adequacy of the Paths and their Fruits to lead indeed
to the grand ambrosial Nirvana ; (3) as to whether those
of the Order are indeed at various stages of the path to
salvation, or have rightly won their way so far ; (4) as to
whether the Training is helpful ; (5) as to whether evolu-
tion by way of skandhas, dhatus and ayatanas has held in
the past, or will hold in the future; (6) as to whether
there is a twelve-graded cycle of causation, taking effect
here and now or taking effect at all.
^ Ito bahiddha.
* I have ventured to adopt a reading differing slightly
this walking in mere opinion, this jungle of opinion, this
wilderness of opinion, this puppet-show of opinion, scuffling
of opinion. Fetter of opinion, the grip and tenacity of it, the
inclination towards it, the being infected by it, this by-path,
wrong road, wrongness, this '
fording-place,' this shiftiness
of grasp—this is called the contagion of mere rule and
ritual.
[1006] These three Fetters, and the Corruptions united
with them,^ and the four skandhas associated with them,
as well as the action, bodily, vocal and mental, springing
from them—these are the states which are to be put away
by insight.
[1007] Which are the states that are to be put away by
culture ?^
from that both of the text and of K. The sense seems to
demand it and the Cy. to imply it. The latter has : Silena
ti gosiladina, vatena ti govatadina va (sic lege),
sllabbatena ti tadubhayena, suddhi ti kilesa-
suddhi paramattha-suddhibhutam va nibbanam
eva. But it would not be in accordance with the methods
of the Cy. to quote vatena ti if suddhivatena stood
in the text. (Asl. 355.)
As to the terms gosila, govatam, it is not clear what
were the practices and mode of life followed in the *
bovine
morals,' etc., of those who were called govattika, or in
the 'canine (? Cynic) practices '
of the kukkuravattika.
Both are named in M. i. 387. Cf. also Kh. P. Cy., p. 26.
Suddhi, it will be seen, is distinguished as, on the one
hand, the mere renunciation of the Kilesas (see § 1229), on
the other, perfect holiness or Nirvana.
On silabbataparamaso, see Ehys Davids' 'American
Lectures,' 146.
^ These are said to be chiefly speculation and perplexity
(regarded not as 'fetters,' but as plagues or evils), and,
besides these, lust, hate, dulness, pride, stolidity, excite-
ment, unconscientiousness, disregard of blame.
^ Or practice: bhavana, the collective name for the
systematized effort in self-training of the disciple who,
having attained 'insight,' leaves 'the principles of the
doctrine ' that he may '
go on unto perfection '
(Heb. vi. 1)-
Whatever lust, hate and dulness still remain, and any
corruptions united with them ; the four skandhas that are
associated with them; whatever action, bodily, vocal or
mental, springs from them.
[1008] Which are the states that are to be put away
neither by insight nor by culture?
Good and indeterminate states relating to the worlds of
sense, form or the formless, or to the life that is Unincluded
;
the four skandhas ; all form, moreover, and uncompounded
element.^
[1009] Which are the states the causes of which are to
be put away by insight T-
The three Fetters, to wit, theory of individuality, per-
plexity, contagion of mere rule and ritual.
In this connexion
[1010] What is '
theory of individuality ' ? . . . {continue
as in §§ 1003-1005].^
in other words, travel along the three higher Paths to
Arahatship.
On the 'powers of bhavana,' see A. i. 52.
In A. i. 43, the '
one thing needful ' for the perfecting of
bhavana is said to be kayagata-sati, mindfulness in
what concerns the body, or bodily action.
^ Hence only akusala dhamma, '
bad states,' can be
put away by insight and culture. Nor can even these two
avail in mutual independence, for see §§ 1258, 1260. The
rest of one's karma goes on accumulating. The good
and the indeterminate, the modes of matter, and Simple
Element :
—these cannot cease for any individual until,
according to Buddhaghosa, his abhisankhara-vinnanam
(Asl. 357)—his constructing, storing intellect, itself dies
out with the extinction of his life as Arahat. See Sum.
on the Kevaddha Sutta, D. i. 223 ;
'
Dialogues of the
Buddha,' i. 272 etseq.
2 Pahatabba-hetuka, *
That is, the cause of them
(hetu etesam) is to be put away by insight.' Asl. 43.
^ Here the reading in the text is obviously corrupt. I
follow that in K., viz. : Tatthakatamasakkayaditthi?
[1010a] These three Fetters, and the Corruptions united
with them, and the four skandhas associated with them, as
well as the action, bodily, vocal and mental, springing from
them—these are the states the causes of which are to be
put away by insight.
[10105]^ The three Fetters :—theory of individuality,
perplexity, contagion of mere rule and ritual—are the
states that are to be put away by insight. The lust, hate
and dulness united with them are the causes that are to be
put away by insight. And the Corruptions united with
them, the four skandhas associated with them, and the
action, bodily, vocal and mental, springing from them, are
the states the causes oftvhich are to be put away by insight.
[1011] Which are the states the causes of which are to
be put away by culture ?
Whatever lust, hate and dulness still remain, these are
causes'^ that are to be put away by culture. And the Corrup-
tions united with them, the four skandhas associated with
them, and the action, bodily, vocal and mental, springing
from them—these are states the causes of which are to be
put away by culture.
[1012] Which are the states the causes of which are to
be put away neither by insight, nor by cultivation ?
The afore-mentioned states excepted, all other states,
good, bad and indeterminate, relating to the worlds of
sense, form and the formless, and to the life that is
Unincluded ; in other words, the four skandhas ; all form,
moreover, and uncompounded element.
. . . pe . . . ayam vuccati sakkayaditthi —and
so on.
^ This paragraph, in which I again follow K., is not
included in the text at all. Nevertheless, Buddhaghosa
comments on it (p. 357).
2 Here again I follow K. in reading pahatabba-hetu for
hetuka. Buddhaghosa quotes the former reading (p. 358),
as referring to the putting away of dulness accompanied by
excitement.
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