Right View: The Sammaditthi Sutta and its Commentary
Translated from the Pali by Bhikkhu Nanamoli
Edited and Revised by Bhikkhu Bodhi
The Four Noble Truths
14. Now, delighting and rejoicing in the Elder's words, after saying as before "Good, friend," the bhikkhus asked a further question, and the Elder answered them by another exposition. This method is found in all the following sections. Therefore, from here onwards, we shall explain the meaning only of the particular exposition he states in reply, without touching upon such words (as are already explained).
15. In the brief exposition of this teaching, in the phrase (he) understands suffering (dukkham pajanati), "suffering" is the truth of suffering. But regarding the detailed exposition, whatever needs to be said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Truths (XVI,13-104).
Aging and Death
21. From here onwards the teaching is given by way of dependent arising (paticca samuppada).
22. Therein, in the section on aging and death, firstly as to the term their (tesam tesam) -- this should be understood as a collective designation in brief for the many kinds of beings. For if one were to state (the aging of individuals such as) the aging of Devadatta, the aging of Somadatta, etc., one would never come to an end of beings. But there is no being not included by this term "their."[41] Therefore it was said above: "This should be understood as a collective designation in brief for the many kinds of beings."
In the various (tamhi tamhi): This is a collective designation for the many (different) orders by way of destiny and birth. Orders of beings (sattanikaye): an indication of the nature of what is designated by the collective designation.
Aging, old age (jara jiranata), etc.: As regards these, "aging" is the description of the nature; "old age" is the description of the aspect; "brokenness," etc., are descriptions of the function with respect to the passage of time; and the last two terms are descriptions of the normal (process). For this is indicated as to nature by this term aging (jara); hence this is a description of its nature. It is indicated as to aspect by this term old age (jiranata); hence this is a description of its aspect. Brokenness (khandicca): by this it is indicated as to the function of causing the broken state of teeth and nails on account of the passage of time. Grayness (palicca): by this it is indicated as to the function of causing the head hairs and body hairs to turn gray. Wrinkling (valittacata): by this it is indicated as to the wrinkled state of the skin after the withering of the flesh. Hence the three terms beginning with brokenness are descriptions of function with respect to the passage of time. By these evident aging is shown, which becomes evident by the showing of these alterations. For just as the course taken by water or wind or fire is evident from the damaged and broken state, or the burnt state, of the grass and trees, etc., and yet the course that has been taken is not the water, etc., itself, so too the course taken by aging is evident through brokenness of teeth, etc., and it is apprehended by opening the eyes, but the brokenness, etc., themselves are not aging, nor is aging cognizable by the eye.
Decline of life, weakness of faculties (ayuno samhani indriyanam paripako): By these terms it is indicated by means of the normal (process) known as the exhaustion of the life-span and the weakening of the eye faculty, etc., that has become manifest with the passage of time. Hence these last two are to be understood as descriptions of its normal (process).
Therein, because the life-span of one who has reached aging is dwindling, aging is called "decline of life" as a metaphor (for the cause stated in terms) of its effect. And because the eye faculty, etc. -- which at the time of youth were quite clear and could easily grasp even subtle objects -- become deficient, obscure, unable to grasp even gross objects when one has reached old age, therefore it is called "weakness of faculties" also as a metaphor (for the cause stated in terms) of its effect.
This aging, thus described, is all of two kinds, evident and concealed. Therein, the aging of material phenomena, shown by brokenness, etc., is called evident aging (pakatajara). But in the case of immaterial phenomena, because their alteration in such a way is not visible, their aging is called concealed aging (paticchannajara). Therein, the brokenness that is seen is simply color (vanna) because of the ease of comprehending such things as the teeth, etc. Having seen this with the eye and reflected on it with the mind door, one knows aging thus: "These teeth have been afflicted by aging," just as one knows the existence of water below when one has noticed the heads of cows, etc., bound to the place where the water is located.
Again, aging is twofold thus: as continuous and as discrete. Therein, continuous aging (avicijara) is the aging of such things as gems, gold, silver, coral, the sun and moon, etc.; it is so called because of the difficulty of perceiving in such things distinct changes in color, etc., at regular intervals, as we can in the case of living beings passing through the decade of childhood, etc., and in the case of vegetation (lit. non-breathing things) such as flowers, fruits, buds, etc. The meaning is: aging that progresses without interval. Discrete aging (savicijara) is the aging of the things other than those, i.e. of the aforesaid things (living beings and vegetation); it is so called because it is easy to perceive in them distinct changes in color, etc., at regular intervals. So it should be understood.
Following this (in the definition of death) the term their (tesam tesam) should be understood by the method stated above (in the definition of aging). Then, in the expression passing, passing away, etc., passing (cuti) is said by way of what has the nature to pass away; this is a collective designation (applying) to one-, four-, and five-aggregate (existence). Passing away (cavanata) is the indication of the characteristic by a word expressing the abstract state. Dissolution (bheda) is an indication of the occurrence of the breaking up of the aggregates (at the time) of passing. Disappearance (antaradhana) is an indication of the absence of any manner of persistence of the aggregates (at the time) of passing, as they are broken like a broken pot.
Dying (maccu marana): death which is called dying. By this he rejects the idea of death as complete annihilation. Completion of time (kalakiriya): time is the destroyer, and this (completion of time) is its activity. By this he explains death in conventional terminology.
Now, to explain death in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense, he next says the dissolution of the aggregates (khandhanam bhedo), etc.[42] For in the ultimate sense it is only the aggregates that break up; it is not any so called being that dies. But when the aggregates are breaking up convention says "a being is dying," and when they have broken up convention says "(he is) dead."
Here the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four- [and five-] constituent being; the laying down of the body (kalevarassa nikkhepo) by way of one-constituent being.[43] Or alternatively, the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four-constituent being; the laying down of the body should be understood by way of the other two (i.e. one- and five-constituent being). Why? Because of the existence of the body, that is, the material body, in those two realms of being. Or else, because in the realm of the Four Great Kings, etc., the aggregates simply break up and they do not lay anything down, the dissolution of the aggregates is said with reference to them.[44] The laying down of the body occurs among human beings, etc. And here, because it is the cause for the laying down of the body, death is called the laying down of the body. Thus the meaning should be understood.
So this aging and this death are what is called aging and death (iti ayan ca jara idan ca maranam idam vuccat'avuso jaramaranam): this is spoken of as "aging and death" by combining the two into one.
Birth
26. In the section on birth, in regard to the phrase birth, . . . their coming to birth, etc., birth (jati) is in the sense of being born; this is stated with reference to those (conceived) with incomplete sense bases. Coming to birth (sanjati) is in the sense of the act of coming to birth; this is stated with reference to those (conceived) with already complete sense bases. Precipitation (or descent, okkanti) is in the sense of being precipitated (descending). This is stated with reference to those born from the egg and from the womb, for they take rebirth-linking as though descending and entering the egg shell or the placenta. Generation (abhinibbatti) is in the sense of being generated. This is stated with reference to those born from moisture or those of spontaneous birth, for these are generated as soon as they become manifest.
Now comes the exposition in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense. Manifestation (patubhava) is the arising. Of the aggregates (khandhanam) is to be understood as (the arising) of one aggregate in the one-constituent realm of being, of four aggregates in four-constituent realms, and of five aggregates in five-constituent realms. Obtaining (patilabha) is the manifestation in continuity. The bases (ayatananam) should be understood as comprising the sense bases arising (at conception) in this or that realm. For when the sense bases become manifest, then they are said to be obtained.
This is called birth (ayam vuccat'avuso jati): by this phrase he comes to the conclusion on birth taught in both conventional terms and in the ultimate sense.
With the arising of being (bhavasamudaya): but here one should understand kammically active being as the condition for birth. The rest by the method stated.
Being
30. In the section on being, sense-sphere being (kamabhava) is kammically active being and resultant being. Therein, kammically active being (kammabhava) is kamma itself that leads to sense-sphere being. For that is called "being" as a designation of the cause in terms of its effect, because it is the cause for resultant being, as when it is said: "The arising of Buddhas is bliss" and "The accumulation of evil is painful" (Dhp. 194, 117). Resultant being (upapattibhava) is the group of kammically acquired aggregates produced by that kamma. For that is called "being" because it exists there. Thus this kamma and this result are both spoken of conjointly as "sense-sphere being." The same method applies to fine-material being and immaterial being (ruparupabhava).
With the arising of clinging (upadanasamudaya): But here clinging is a condition for wholesome kammically active being only by way of decisive support; it is a condition for unwholesome kammically active being by way of both decisive support and conascence.[45] For all resultant being it is a condition only by way of decisive support. The rest by the method stated.
Clinging
34. In the section on clinging, in regard to the phrase "clinging to sense pleasures," etc., clinging to sense pleasures (kamupadana) is analyzed thus: by this one clings to the object of sensual pleasure, or this itself clings to it. Or alternatively: that is a sensual pleasure and it is clinging, thus it is clinging to sensual pleasure. It is firm grasping (dalhagahana) that is called clinging. For here the prefix upa has the sense of firmness. This is a designation for the lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure. This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to sensual pleasures? The sensual desire in regard to sensual pleasures," etc. (Dhs. Section 1214).
So too, that is a view and clinging, thus it is clinging to views (ditthupadana). Or alternatively: it clings to a view, or by this they cling to a view. For the subsequent view clings to the previous view and thereby they cling to the view. As it is said: "Self and the world are eternal; only this is true, anything else is false," etc. (M.102/ii, 233). This is a designation for the whole field of (wrong) views except clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a doctrine of self. [46] This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to views? There is nothing given," etc. (Dhs. Section 1215).
So too, by this they cling to rituals and observances, or this itself clings to them, or that is a ritual and observance and clinging, thus it is clinging to rituals and observances (silabbatupadana). For when one adheres to the idea that the cow ritual or cow observance brings purification, that itself is a clinging.[47] This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to rituals and observances? (The idea) of recluses and brahmins outside here (i.e. outside the Buddha's dispensation) that purity (is achieved) by rules," etc. (Dhs. Section 1216).
Now they assert in terms of this, thus it is a doctrine. By this they cling, thus it is clinging. What do they assert? Or what do they cling to? Self. The clinging to a doctrine about a self is the clinging to a doctrine of self (attavadupadana). Or alternatively: by this a mere doctrine of self is clung to as self, thus it is clinging to a doctrine of self. This is a designation for personality view with its twenty cases. This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to a doctrine of self? Here, the uninstructed worldling who has no regard for noble ones," etc. (Dhs. Section 1217).
With the arising of craving (tanhasamudaya): here, craving is a condition for clinging to sensual pleasures either by way of decisive support or by way of proximity, contiguity, absence, disappearance and repetition.[48] But for the rest (it is a condition) by way of conascence, etc., too. The rest by the method stated.
Craving
38. In the section on craving, craving for forms . . . craving for mind-objects (rupatanha . . . dhammatanha): these are names for the kinds of craving which occur in the course of a javana cognitive process (javanavithi) in the eye door, etc. Like a name derived from the father, such as Setthiputta ("merchant's son") or Brahmanaputta ("brahmin's son"), their names are derived from the object, which is similar to the father [as being the cause (hetu) of it only, not as is the case with "eye-contact," which is like a name derived from the mother in that (the eye like the mother in relation to her son) is a cause by its nature as a physical support (nissayabhava)].
And here, craving for forms is craving that has forms as its object, craving in regard to forms. When this occurs by finding gratification in visible forms through its nature as sensual lust, it is craving for sensual pleasure (kamatanha). When it occurs by finding gratification in visible forms, thinking "Form is permanent, lasting, eternal," through its nature as lust accompanied by the eternalist view, then it is craving for being (bhavatanha). When it occurs by finding gratification in visible form, thinking "Form is annihilated, destroyed, and does not exist after death," through its nature as lust accompanied by the annihilationist view, then it is craving for non-being (vibhavatanha). Thus it is threefold. And as craving for form, so too craving for sound, etc., (are each threefold too). Thus there are eighteen modes of craving. These eighteen in respect of internal visible form, etc., and in respect of external visible form, etc., come to thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past, thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present make up a hundred and eight.
Or there are eighteen based on internal form, etc., thus: "On account of the internal there is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the notion) 'I am such and such,' " and so on; and there are eighteen based on external form, etc., thus: "On account of the external there is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the notion) 'I am such and such,' " and so on. Thus there are thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past, thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present make up thus the hundred and eight modes of craving (tanhavicaritani; see A. 4:199/ii, 212).
Again, when a classification is made, they reduce to only six classes of craving -- in terms of their objects, forms and the rest -- and to only three types of craving -- craving for sensual pleasure and the rest. Thus:
Craving should be known by the wise
Through description and when described
In detail; it (should be known) again
Through classification of the detail.
With the arising of feeling there is the arising of craving (vedanasamudaya tanhasamudayo): But here the word "feeling" is intended as resultant feeling.[49] How is that the condition for craving in respect of the six sense doors? Because of its ability to produce gratification. For it is through the gratification in pleasant feeling that beings become enamored of that feeling, and after arousing craving for feeling and being seized by lust for feeling, they long only for a desirable visible form in the eye door. And on getting it, they find gratification in it, and they honor painters, etc., who provide such objects. Likewise, they long only for a desirable sound, etc., in the ear door, etc. And on getting it, they find gratification in it, and they honor musicians, perfume makers, cooks, spinners and the teachers of the various crafts. Like what? Like those who, being enamored of a child, out of love for the child honor the wet-nurse and give her suitable ghee, milk, etc., to eat and drink. The rest by the method stated.
Feeling
42. In the section on feeling, classes of feeling (vedanakaya) means groups of feeling. Feeling born of eye-contact . . . feeling born of mind-contact (cakkhusamphassaja vedana . . . manosamphassaja vedana): because of what has come down in the Vibhanga thus: "There is feeling born of eye-contact that is wholesome, that is unwholesome, that is indeterminate" (Vibh. 15), the wholesome, unwholesome and indeterminate feelings that occur in the eye door, etc., are named after the physical base, which is similar to a mother, just as some are named after their mother, such as "Sariputta (Lady Sari's son)," "Mantaniputta (Lady Mantani's son)," etc.
But the word meaning here is this: feeling born of eye-contact (cakkhusamphassaja vedana) is feeling that is born with eye-contact as the cause. The same method throughout. This, in the first place, is the all-inclusive explanation. But by way of resultant, in the eye-door there are two eye-consciousnesses, two mind elements, three mind-consciousness elements; feeling should be understood as what is associated with these.[50] This method also applies in the ear door, etc. In the mind door, (feeling) is associated only with the mind-consciousness elements.
With the arising of contact (phassasamudaya): But here the arising in the five doors of the feelings that have the five physical bases (as their support) occurs with the arising of the conascent eye-contact. For the rest, eye-contact, etc., are conditions by way of decisive support. In the mind door, the arising of feelings (on the occasion) of registration and of the doorless feelings (on the occasions) of rebirth-linking, life-continuum and death occurs with the arising of the conascent mind-contact.[51] The rest by the method stated.
Contact
46. In the section on contact, eye-contact (cakkhusamphassa) is contact in the eye. The same method throughout. Eye-contact . . . body-contact (cakkhusamphasso . . . kayasamphasso): up to this point ten kinds of contact have been stated, namely, the wholesome- and unwholesome-resultants having the five physical bases (as their support). Mind-contact (manosamphassa): by this (he indicates) the remaining twenty-two kinds of contact associated with the mundane resultant (types of consciousness).[52]
With the arising of the sixfold base (salayatanasamudaya): The arising of this sixfold contact should be understood to occur by way of the arising of the six bases beginning with the eye-base. The rest by the method stated.
The Sixfold Base
50. In the section on the sixfold base, as regards the eye-base (cakkhayatana), etc., whatever should be said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Aggregates and in the Description of the Bases (XIV, 37-52; XV, 1-16).
With the arising of mentality-materiality (namarupasamudaya): But here the arising of the sixfold base should be understood to occur from the arising of mentality-materiality according to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent Arising, as to which mentality, which materiality, and which mentality-materiality are a condition for which base (XVII, 206-219).
Mentality-Materiality
54. In the section on mentality-materiality, mentality (nama) has the characteristic of bending (namana); materiality (rupa) has the characteristic of being molested (ruppana).[53] In the detailed section, however, feeling (vedana) is to be understood as the feeling aggregate, perception (sanna) as the perception aggregate, and volition, contact and attention (cetana phasso manasikaro) as the formations aggregate. While it is certainly the case that other states are included in the formations aggregate, still these three are found in all classes of consciousness, even the weakest. That is why the formations aggregate is here pointed out only by means of these three.
The four great elements (cattari mahabhutani): this is a designation for the four -- earth, water, fire and air. The reason why these are called "great elements," and other determinations concerning them, are all stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Materiality Aggregate.[54]
Derived from the four great elements (catunnan ca mahabhutanam upadaya): derived from (upadaya) = having clung to (upadayitva); "having grasped" is the meaning. Some also say "depending upon" (nissaya). And here the reading is completed by adding the word "existing" (vattamanam). The Pali uses the genitive (in the term for the elements) in the sense of a group. Hence the meaning here should be understood thus: the materiality that exists derived from the group of the four great elements.
Thus materiality taken altogether is to be understood as consisting of all the following: the four great elements beginning with the earth element, and the materiality that exists derived from the four great elements, stated in the canonical Abhidhamma to be of twenty-three kinds by analysis into the eye-base, etc.[55]
With the arising of consciousness (vinnanasamudaya): But here the arising of mentality-materiality should be understood to occur with the arising of consciousness according to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent Arising, as to which consciousness is a condition for which mentality, for which materiality, and for which mentality-materiality (XVII, 186-202). The rest by the method stated.
Consciousness
58. In the section on consciousness, eye-consciousness (cakkhuvinnana) is consciousness in the eye or consciousness born from the eye. So also with ear-, nose-, tongue- and body-consciousness. But with the other one, i.e. mind-consciousness (manovinnana), mind itself is consciousness. This is a designation for the resultant consciousness of the three (mundane) planes of existence except for the two groups of fivefold consciousness.[56]
With the arising of formations (sankharasamudaya): But here the arising of consciousness should be understood to occur with the arising of formations according to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga, as to which formation is a condition for which consciousness (XVII, 175-185).
Formations
62. In the section on formations, a formation (sankhara) has the characteristic of forming (abhisankharanalakkhana). But in the detailed section, the bodily formation (kayasankhara) is a formation that proceeds from the body. This is a designation for the twenty kinds of bodily volition -- the eight sense-sphere wholesome and twelve unwholesome -- that occur by way of activation in the bodily door.[57] The verbal formation (vacisankhara) is a formation that proceeds from speech. This is a designation for the (same) twenty kinds of verbal volition that occur by way of breaking into speech in the door of speech. The mental formation (cittasankhara) is a formation that proceeds from the mind. This is a designation for the twenty-nine kinds of mental volition -- the mundane wholesome and unwholesome -- that occur in one sitting alone in thought, and which do not cause activation of the bodily and verbal doors.[58]
With the arising of ignorance (avijjasamudaya): But here ignorance should be understood as a condition for the wholesome by way of decisive support and for the unwholesome by way of conascence as well. The rest by the method stated.
Ignorance
66. In the section on ignorance, not knowing about suffering (dukkhe annanam) means not knowing about the truth of suffering. This is a designation for delusion (moha). The same method with respect to "not knowing about the origin of suffering," and so on.
Herein, not knowing about suffering should be understood in four ways: as to containment (antogadhato), as to physical basis (vatthuto), as to object (arammanato), and as to concealment (paticchadanato). Thus, because of being included in the truth of suffering, it ("not knowing" or ignorance) is contained in suffering; and the truth of suffering is its physical basis by being its support condition; and (the truth of suffering) is its object by being its object condition; and it conceals the truth of suffering by preventing the penetration of its real characteristic and by not allowing knowledge to occur in regard to it.
Not knowing about the origin (of suffering) should be understood in three ways: as to physical basis, as to object, and as to concealment. And not knowing about cessation and the way (to cessation) should be understood in one way only: as to concealment. For non-knowledge only conceals cessation and the way by preventing the penetration of their real characteristics and by not allowing knowledge to occur in regard to them. But it is not contained in them because it is not included in this pair of truths. And these two truths are not its physical basis because they are not conascent. Nor are they its object because of its non-occurrence on account of them. For the last pair of truths are difficult to see because of their profundity, and non-knowledge, which is blind, does not occur there. But the first (pair of truths) is profound in the sense of opposition because of the difficulty in seeing the characteristic of their intrinsic nature; it occurs there by way of obsession by the perversions.
Furthermore: About suffering (dukkhe): to this extent ignorance is indicated as to inclusion, as to physical basis, as to object, and as to function. About the origin of suffering (dukkhasamudaye): to this extent, as to basis, as to object, and as to function. About the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhe) and about the way leading to the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhagaminiya patipadaya): to this extent, as to function. But without distinction, (in each instance) ignorance is described in terms of its intrinsic nature by the phrase "not knowing."
With the arising of the taints (asavasamudaya): But here the taint of sensual desire and the taint of being are conditions for ignorance by way of conascence, etc.; the taint of ignorance, only by way of decisive support. And here the ignorance that had arisen previously should be understood as the taint of ignorance. That is a decisive support condition for the ignorance that arises subsequently. The rest by the method stated.
The Taints
70. In the section on the taints, with the arising of ignorance (avijjasamudaya): Here ignorance is a condition for the taint of sensual desire and the taint of being by way of decisive support, etc.; (it is a condition) for the taint of ignorance only by way of decisive support. And here the ignorance that arises subsequently should be understood as the taint of ignorance. The previously arisen ignorance itself becomes a decisive support condition for the subsequently arisen taint of ignorance. The rest by the aforesaid method.
This section is stated by way of showing the condition for the ignorance which heads the factors of dependent arising. Stated thus, the undiscoverability (anamataggata) of any beginning of samsara is established. How? Because with the arising of the taints there is the arising of ignorance, and with the arising of ignorance there is the arising of the taints. Thus the taints are a condition for ignorance, and ignorance is a condition for the taints. Having shown this, (it follows that) no first point of ignorance is manifest, and because none is manifest the undiscoverability of any beginning of samsara is proven.[59]
Conclusion
Thus in all this sutta sixteen sections have been stated: the section on the courses of kamma, the section on nutriment, the section on suffering, and the sections on aging and death, birth, being, clinging, craving, feeling, contact, the sixfold base, mentality-materiality, consciousness, formations, ignorance and the taints.
As to these, in each individual section there is a twofold analysis -- in brief and in detail -- amounting to thirty-two cases. Thus in this sutta, in these thirty-two cases, the Four (Noble) Truths are expounded. Among these, in the sixteen cases stated in detail, Arahantship is expounded.
But according to the opinion of the Elder, the four truths and the four paths are expounded in the thirty-two cases.[60] Thus in the entire Word of the Buddha comprised in the five great Nikayas, there is no sutta except for this Discourse on Right View where the Four (Noble) Truths are explained thirty-two times and where Arahantship is explained thirty-two times.
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said (idam avoc'ayasma Sariputto): The Venerable Sariputta spoke this Discourse on Right View, having adorned it with sixty-four divisions -- thirty-two expositions of the four truths and thirty-two expositions of Arahantship. The bhikkhus were satisfied and delighted in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
In the Papancasudani, the Commentary to the Majjhima Nikaya, the Explanation of the Discourse on Right View is concluded.
Notes:
1. The term sammaditthi is ordinarily used to mean simply a state, the path factor of right view. Here, however, the Pali expression is used as a masculine noun to mean, in the first instance, a person possessing right view; hence it has been rendered "one of right view." The commentator contrasts this unusual usage of the term with the more common usage where sammaditthi signifies a state (dhamma), that is, the path factor rather than the individual endowed with that state. [^]
2. The knowledge of kamma as one's own (kammassakatanana) is often expressed in the Suttas thus: "I am the owner of my kamma, the heir of my kamma, I spring from my kamma, I am bound to my kamma, I have kamma as my refuge. Whatever kamma I perform, good or bad, of that I am the heir." In short, it is knowledge of the moral efficacy of action, of the fact that one's willed deeds fashion one's destiny. Knowledge in conformity with the truths (saccanulomikanana) is conceptual knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, accompanied by understanding and acceptance of them. [^]
3. The understanding or wisdom (panna) connected with the paths and fruits is supramundane because its object is the supramundane dhamma, Nibbana, and because it leads to the overcoming of the world. [^]
4. A disciple in higher training (sekha) is one at any of the three lower levels of sanctity -- a stream-enterer, once-returner, or non-returner -- or one who has reached their respective paths. His right view is said to be fixed in destiny (niyata) because it necessarily leads to final liberation. [^]
5. The "one beyond training" (asekha) is the Arahant, so called because he has completed the threefold training in virtue, concentration and wisdom. [^]
6. The ninefold supramundane Dhamma: the four paths, the four fruitions, and Nibbana. [^]
7. The interpretation of "the bhikkhus" and "the Elder" is offered by Sub. Cy., which also presents an alternative interpretation, based on the commentary to the Vatthupama Sutta (M.7) according to which the bhikkhus are the pupils of the Elder Mahasangharakkhita and "the Elder" is the Elder Mahasangharakkhita. [^]
8. See commentary to the third parajika offence. [^]
9. See commentary to the second parajika offence. [^]
10. The meaning of several of these terms, obscure in the original Pali, has been elaborated with the aid of the Sub. Cy. [^]
11. Consent (adhivasana) is included to cover the case where one of the partners is initially an unwilling victim of another's assault, but during the course of union consents to the act and thereby becomes a participant. [^]
12. These are references to the two great classics of Hindu India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. [^]
13. Wrong views of fixed destiny (niyata micchaditthi) are views which deny the moral efficacy of action or which tend to undermine the foundations of morality. For the most common examples, see D.2/i, 52-56, and M.76/i, 515-18. [^]
14. The chief factor in the first seven courses of kamma is volition; the other three courses are identical with the mental factors of greed, hatred and wrong view, which are associated with volition in the states of consciousness in which they arise. [^]
15. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of consciousness, according to which wholesome sense-sphere consciousness is of eight types, four associated with knowledge, four dissociated from knowledge. The abstinences, according to the Abhidhamma, occur in sense-sphere consciousness only one at a time on occasions when one deliberately abstains from some wrong. In supramundane consciousness all three abstinences -- right speech, right action and right livelihood -- occur together simultaneously. [^]
16. Right view is synonymous with the mental factor of wisdom (panna) or non-delusion (amoha); it is always accompanied by the other two wholesome roots, though the latter do not necessarily occur in conjunction with right view. [^]
17. Literally, or in the strict sense (nippariyayena), only covetousness and greed, being synonyms of craving (tanha), count as the origin of suffering. But in a looser or figurative manner of exposition (pariyayena) all the roots are the truth of the origin, since as roots of kamma they help to sustain the round of rebirth and suffering. [^]
18. The guideline of conversion (avattahara) is one of the methods of deduction in the exegetical guide, the Nettippakarana. According to this guideline, an expositor of a sutta is to extract from a particular text a standard doctrinal concept belonging to a dichotomy, and then taking this concept as a basis, he is to show that the other member of the dichotomy is also implied by the passage under consideration, and therefore "turns up" when the first member is mentioned. [^]
19. The path of non-return (anagamimagga) is stated because this path eradicates all sensual lust and aversion. [^]
20. The path of Arahantship is implied by the eradication of conceit and ignorance and by the arousing of true knowledge. [^]
21. The verb aharati normally means "to bring," but here it is rendered as "nourish" to underscore its connection with ahara, nutriment. [^]
22. On the four yoni or modes of generation, see M.12/i, 73. [^]
23. According to the Abhidhamma, the nutriment proper is the material phenomenon called nutritive essence (oja), while the solid food ingested is the mere "basis" (vatthu) of the nutritive essence. [^]
24. The point is that while in conventional terms food substances are distinguished as gross or subtle, this distinction is made in terms of the physical base only. The Abhidhamma classifies nutritive essence as subtle materiality (sukhumarupa); it contrasts with gross materiality (olarikarupa), which includes only the five sense organs and their objects. [^]
25. This is the highest realm among the sense-sphere heavens. Above this come the Brahma realms, where physical nutriment is non-existent. [^]
26. This is the simplest kind of material group (rupakalapa) recognized by the Abhidhamma theory of matter. It consists of the four primary elements, along with color, smell, taste, and nutritive essence. All the more complex material groups also contain these eight phenomena as their foundation. Material groups in a living organism require an input of nutriment in order to endure in continuity. [^]
27. Conascence condition (sahajatapaccaya) is the condition whereby the conditioning state contributes to the arising or maintenance of another state, the conditionally arisen state, when the latter arises simultaneously with itself. Consciousness is a conascence condition for the three other mental aggregates -- feeling, perception and mental formations -- both at rebirth and during the course of life. At rebirth it is also a conascence condition for the "triple continuity," i.e. the three material decads of body-sensitivity, sexual determination and the heart-base. Each of these consists of the above-mentioned eight material units along with physical life and, as the tenth factor, the material phenomenon after which it is named. [^]
28. Kammically acquired materiality (upadinnarupa) is matter that is born of kamma. It includes the physical sense faculties, the life faculty, masculinity, femininity, and the coexisting material phenomena in the same group. Though such types of matter are produced by kamma rather than by nutriment, they require nutriment to sustain them in continuity. [^]
29. The Lakkhana Samyutta (S.19/ii, 254-62) describes the torments experienced by beings in the realm of the petas or "afflicted spirits." [^]
30. These similes are taken from the Puttamamsa Sutta, the Discourse on Son's Flesh (S.12:63/ii, 97-100). See Nyanaponika Thera, The Four Nutriments of Life (BPS Wheel No. 104/105, 1967), pp. 19-40, for the sutta along with its commentary. [^]
31. A yojana is about seven miles. [^]
32. The cow-observance and the dog-observance are forms of self-mortification which ascetics of the Buddha's time practiced in the hope of purification; see M.57/i, 387. Apparently, women also observed them for short periods in the hope they would make them fertile. [^]
33. The commentary to the Puttamamsa Sutta develops this analogy in greater detail than the present commentary. [^]
34. The sutta elaborates as follows: If the cow stands, the creatures in the air attack it; if it leans against a wall, the creatures in the wall attack it; if it lies down, the creatures in the ground attack it; if it enters a pool of water, the creatures in the water attack it. [^]
35. Contact arises from the coming together of an object, a physical basis or sense faculty (vatthu), and the corresponding type of consciousness. [^]
36. The simile as given in the sutta is this: Two strong men grab hold of a weaker man by both arms and drag him towards a blazing charcoal pit. He wriggles and struggles to get free because he knows that if he is thrown into the pit, he will meet death or deadly pain. [^]
37. The king's men arrest a thief and bring him before the king. The king orders him struck with a hundred spears in the morning, another hundred at noon, and a third hundred in the evening. The man survives but experiences deadly pain. [^]
38. See note 27. [^]
39. The eight types of consciousness accompanied by greed are distinguished by the presence or absence of wrong view, by their accompanying feeling which may be pleasant or neutral, and by whether they are spontaneous or prompted. [^]
40. The principle of the Four Noble Truths can be discerned in the format of the exposition: a particular item X, the arising of X, the cessation of X, and the way to the cessation of X. [^]
41. In Pali the repetition tesam tesam, lit. "of them, of them," is understood to imply complete inclusiveness. The same applies to tamhi tamhi, "in that, in that," just below. [^]
42. Whereas the previous definitions were framed in conventional terminology, those valid in the ultimate sense (paramatthato) define their subject solely in terms of "ultimate realities" such as aggregates and sense bases. [^]
43. The various realms of existence are analyzed as threefold on the basis of the number of aggregates existing there. One-constituent being is the non-percipient realm (asannibhumi), which includes only the aggregate of material form. Four-constituent being is the four immaterial realms, which contain the four mental aggregates but not the aggregate of material form. Five-constituent being comprises all other realms, in which all five aggregates are present. [^]
44. It seems that in the sense-sphere heavens, at death the beings simply dissipate into thin air, without leaving behind any corpse. [^]
45. Decisive support condition (upanissayapaccaya) and conascence condition (sahajatapaccaya) are the two chief conditions among the twenty-four conditions of the Patthana or Abhidhammic system of conditional relations. Decisive support holds between a conditioning state and a conditioned state that it helps to arise across an interval of time. Conascence condition holds between a conditioning state and a conditioned state that arise simultaneously. See also note 27 above. [^]
46. Clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a doctrine of self are both types of wrong view, but as they are enumerated as individual kinds of clinging in their own right, they are not included under clinging to views. [^]
47. See above, note 32. [^]
48. These are conditional relations that hold between successive mind-moments in the javana phase of a single cognitive process (cittavithi). [^]
49. Resultant feeling alone is intended here because this is an exposition of the round of existence, and in the formula of dependent arising the factors from consciousness through feeling are classified as the resultant phase of the round. [^]
50. The two eye-consciousness elements are the wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant; the two resultant mind elements are the wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant receiving consciousness (sampaticchanacitta); the three resultant mind-consciousness elements are three types of investigating consciousness (santiranacitta). [^]
51. The registration consciousness (tadarammanacitta) is a resultant type of consciousness that occurs through any of the sense doors. Its function is to register the datum that had been the object of the preceding javana series. The rebirth, life-continuum (bhavanga) and death consciousnesses are resultants that are considered to be "doorless" (advarika) because they occur at an inner subliminal level, not through the intercourse of sense organs and sense objects. [^]
52. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of thirty-two types of resultant consciousness, of which twenty-two remain besides the ten types of sense-consciousness, five resultants of the unwholesome and five of the wholesome. The details are not necessary here. [^]
53. These two definitions involve word plays difficult to reproduce in English. Ven. Nanamoli has a note suggesting, half flippantly, "minding" for namana and "mattering" for ruppana. [^]
54. In fact the Visuddhimagga discusses the four great elements not in its chapter on the Description of the Aggregates (Ch. XIV), but in the chapter on the meditation subject called the definition of the elements (Ch. XI). [^]
55. Some instances of derived materiality are: the five sense faculties, color, sound, smell, taste, the life faculty, sexual determination, nutritive essence, space, etc. [^]
56. The three planes of existence were enumerated in Section 30. Only resultant consciousness is taken into account here because this is an exposition of the round. [^]
57. The figures for the types of consciousness again come from the Abhidhamma. These types of consciousness can come to expression either through the door of bodily action or the door of speech, or they can remain within and not gain outer expression. [^]
58. The nine types of volition which do not come to expression by body or speech are the five volitions of the five fine-material-sphere jhanas and the four of the four immaterial-sphere jhanas. [^]
59. Elsewhere the Buddha says: "A first point of ignorance cannot be discovered, of which it can be said: Before that there was no ignorance and it came to be after that" (A.10:61/v,113). In that sutta the Buddha cites the five hindrances as the condition for ignorance, but as these in turn presuppose ignorance, the vicious cycle is again established. [^]
60. For the identity of the dissenting Elder, see Section 3 and note 7. [^]
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